UC-NRLF 


113 

PESTS  OF  THE  FAKM 

BEIN3    AN    ACCOUNT    OF   THE   VARIOUS 

DEPREDATING  ANIMALS,  BIKDS,  AND  INSECTS 


ANNOY  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  THEIR  DESTRUCTION. 


WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS  ON  WOOD. 


NEW   YORK  : 
A  .     O  .      MOORE, 

(I,ATE    C.    M.     6AXTON    <b    CO.,) 

AGRICULTUI!  AL    BOOK    PUBLSHER, 
140  FULTON  STREET. 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


SS  S93 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 


THE  title  and  purpose  of  this  little  book,  were  suggested  by  the 
English  one  of  Richardson.  Beside  the  name,  this  has  little  connec- 
tion with  that,  as  it  is  wholly  American,  some  trifling  portion  only 
having  been  taken  from  it.  The  pests  of  the  American  farm  being 
nearly  all  American,  it  was  necessary  to  draw  its  matter  from  Amer- 
ican sources.  The  Editor  is  indebted  mainly  to  Godman  and  Audu- 
bon  for  the  portion  relating  to  Quadrupeds ;  to  Wilson,  Bonaparte, 
Ord  and  Audubon  for  that  relating  to  Birds ;  and  to  Harris  and  Misa 
Morris  for  that  relating  to  Insects. 

The  matter  contained  in  this  little  book  is  nowhere  else  accessible 
in  one  volume,  nor  in  popular  shape.  To  obtain  the  information 
here  given,  many  expensive  ones,  without  this,  must  have  been  con- 
sulted ;  and  while  these  circumstances  should  commend  it  to  every 
farmer,  the  subject  matter  should  command  his  attention  and  secure 
his  interest.  A.  S. 


M362325 


PUBLISHER'S  ADVERTISEMENT. 


THE  Publisher,  having  found  the  want  of  small,  cheap  Books,  of 
acknowledged  merit,  on  the  groat  topics  of  farming  economy,  and 
meeting  for  those  of  such  a  class  a  constant  demand,  offers,  in  his 
Rural  Handbooks,  of  which  this  is  one,  works  calculated  to  fill  the 
void. 

He  trusts  that  a  discerning  Public  will  both  buy  and  read  these 
little  Treatises,  so  admirably  adapted  to  all  classes,  and  fitted  by 
their  size  for  the  pocket,  and  thus  readable  at  the  fireside,  on  the 
road,  and  in  short  everywhere. 

C.  M.  SAXTON, 

Agricultural  Book  Publisher. 


CONTENTS. 


SECTION  I. 

QUADRUPEDS. 

The  Wild  Cat,  page  8 — Northern  or  Canadian  Lynx,  9 — The  Skunk,  10— 
The  Weasel,  13— The  Otter,  17— The  American  Porcupine,  18— The 
Mole,  19— The  European  Rabbit,  23— The  Hare  or  American  Rab- 
bit, 25— The  Fox,  27— Wolves,  30;  the  Common  Wolf,  30;  the 
Prairie  or  Barking  Wolf,  32 ;  the  American  Black  Wolf,  33 — The 
Woodchuck  or  Marmot,  35— The  Raccoon,  37— The  Black  Bear, 
40 — Squirrels,  45 ;  the  Cat  Squirrel,  45  ;  the  Black  Squirrel,  45 ;  the 
common  Grey  Squirrel,  45 ;  the  common  Red  Squirrel,  46 ;  the 
Ground  Squirrel  or  Chipmunk,  47 — Rats,  48 — Mice,  56 — Ferrets,  59. 

SECTION  II. 

PREDACIOUS   BIRDS. 

Predacious  Birds,  p.  60— The  Eagle,  60 — The  Bald  Eagle  or  White  Headed 
Eagle,  61— The  Sea  or  Gray  Eagle,  64— The  Crow,  65— The  Raven, 
69— Hawks,  70;  American  Sparrow  Hawk,  70;  the  Red  Tailed 
Hawk,  72— Owls,  72;  the  Barred  Owl,  72;  the  Little  Owl,  74  ;  the 
Red  Owl,  75;  the  Great  Horned  Owl,  75. 

SECTION  III. 

INSECTS. 

Insects,  p.  76— Wire  Worm,  77— lules,  80— May  Bugs,  81— Rose  Bugs, 
82— Pea  Bug,  84— The  Apple  Worm,  85— The  Apple  tree  Borer, 
88— The  Turnip  Fly  or  Beetle,  89— Potato  Fly,  90 — Grasshopperg 


CONTENTS. 

and  Locusts,  91— Locusts,  92— Plant  Lice,  94— Bark  Lice,  96— Peach 
tree  Borer,  97 — Caterpillars,  98 ;  Yellow  Bear  Caterpillar,  98  ;  the 
Salt  Marsh  Caterpillar,  99 ;  Apple  tree  Caterpillar,  101 ;  Lackey 
Caterpillar,  103 — Locust  tree  Borers,  106 — Apple,  Cherry  and  Plum 
tree  Caterpillars,  108;  Corn  Caterpillar,  111;  Cut  Worms,  112 — The 
Plum  Weevil  or  Curculio,  115 — Canker  Worms,  118 — The  Hop 
Caterpillar,  123— The  Bee  Moth,  124— The  Grain  Moth,  127— Th« 
Hessian  Fly,  130. 


THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 


ANY  scientific  mode  of  arrangement,  in  the  treatment  of  euch  a 
very  diversified  subject  as  the  present,  would  only  prove  a  source 
of  unnecessary  toil  and  mystification  to  the  practical  reader.  The 
principal  living  pests  from  whose  annoyances  farmers,  or  those 
holding  land,  whether  as  farmers  or  mere  country  gentlemen,  are 
likely  to  suffer,  are  easily  divisible  into  three  great  sections — viz., 
quadrupeds,  birds,  and  insects.  I  adopt  the  latter  term  in  its  old 
and  widest  sense — viz.,  as  applying  not  merely  to  insecta,  but  to 
worms,  slugs,  and  other  land  molluscs  infesting  plants  and  fruits. 
Under  the  first  head,  of  Quadrupeds,  will  be  the  WILD  CAT,  the 
SKUNK,  the  WEASEL,  the  OTTER,  the  HEDGEHOG  or  PORCUPINE,  the 
MOLE,  the  RABBIT,  the  HARE,  the  RAT,  the  MOUSE,  the  Fox,  the 
OPOSSUM,  the  MINK,  the  MUSKRAT,  the  WOLF,  and  the  RACCOON. 
Under  the  second  head  will  be  Predacious  Birds,  such  as  the  Eagle, 
the  Raven,  the  Owl,  the  Kite,  the  Hawk,  &c.,  whose  predatory  habits 
tend  usually  towards  the  same  quarter,  and  which  may  to  a  great 
extent  be  destroyed,  or  their  ravages  guarded  against,  in  the  same 
manner  and  by  the  same  means.  Under  the  third,  will  be  Insects, 
properly  so  called,  as  Beetles,  Weevils,  Wasps,  Flies,  the  WIREWORM, 
the  TURNIP-FLY,  the  BEETLE,  the  various  CATERPILLARS,  and  other 
ravenous  larva  ;  nor  shall  I  omit  some  account  of  the  aphis  vastator, 
to  whose  devastation  many  persons  attribute  the  loss  of  the  potato ; 
and,  observe,  I  shall  not  confine  my  observations  to  such  creatures 
as  /  know  to  be  pests,  but  shall  further  describe  such  as  are  only 
suspected,  and  also  those  which  are  calumniated,  which  /  know  not 
to  be  pests,  many  of  which,  indeed,  are  on  the  contrary  serviceable, 
and  to  be  regarded  as  friends  rather  than  as  foes,  to  be  preserved 
rather  than  extirpated. 


S  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

SECTION    I. 

QUADRUPEDS. 

THE  WILD  CAT. — In  form,  the  Wild  Cat  closely  resembles  its 
domesticated  namesake  ;  it  is,  however,  more  compactly  built,  is  of 
larger  size,  and  its  tail  is  not  only  shorter,  but  blunter  at  the  point. 
From  the  latter  circumstance  has  arisen  the  not  yet  obsolete  fable 
of  wild,  demon-like  cats,  being  found,  with  hooks  or  spikes  at  the 
extremity  of  the  tail ;  for,  in  the  common  Wild  Cat,  the  extremity 
of  the  tail  is  usually  destitute  of  hair,  and  is  not  unfrequently  fur- 
nished with  a  hard  and  nail-like  process,  proceeding  from  a  sort  of 
unaccountable  exposure  of  the  last  joint  of  the  tail.  The  domestic 
cat  will  also  occasionally  become  wild.  This  is  not,  as  might  be 
supposed,  the  descendant  of  the  Wild  Cat,  but  is  of  Egyptian  ori- 
gin. It  will,  however,  breed  with  the  Wild  Cat,  and  I  have  ascer- 
tained that  the  progeny  are  fertile.  The  young  are  also  fertile 
among  themselves ;  and,  hence,  according  to  the  admitted  theory 
of  zoologists,  they  are  of  the  one  species. 

When  the  domestic  cat  becomes  wild,  it  is,  by  many  degrees,  a 
more  troublesome  and  more  crafty  enemy  than  the  naturally  wild 
animal.  Whether  naturally  wild,  or  only  having  been  rendered 
so  by  circumstances,  however,  both  animals  present  the  same  char- 
acteristics of  disposition,  habit,  and  place  of  abode.  Their  prey  is 
the  same,  their  habitudes  are  the  same,  and,  consequently,  the 
same  mode  of  destruction  will  be  found  to  apply  to  both.  The 
principal  specific  difference  between  the  wild  and  the  common  Cat 
is  the  length  of  the  intestines — those  of  the  Wild  Cat  being  con- 
siderably shorter. 

The  Wild  Cat  exceeds  the  common  cat  in  size,  standing  usually 
upwards  of  eighteen  inches  in  height.  The  body  is  shorter  in  pro- 
portion ;  the  lips  are  always  black,  and  the  prevailing  color  of  the 
fur  a  rusty  or  reddish  grey.  This  fur  will  be  found  to  make  a 
warm  and  comfortable  lining  for  winter  shoes. 

Now,  as  to  the  destruction  of  the  cat,  either  traps  or  poison  will 
effect  it  with  facility.  A  steel  spring-trap  is  best,  and  I  prefer  the 
square  to  the  round  form.  Chain  it  firmly  to  some  fixed  object ; 
bait  with  a  dead  fowl  or  piece  of  meat,  smeared  or  rubbed  with 
valerian.  The  cat  is  so  very  fond  of  the  odor  of  this  substance, 
hence  familiarly  termed  "  catmint,"  that  it  will  go  anywhere  for 


QUADRUPEDS.  9 

the  purpose  of  rolling  upon  it.     The  annexed  cut  represents  the 
best  form  of  trap  for  this  purpose.     You  should  proceed  with  cau- 


tion to  release  the  captive  felon.     Should  any  blood  be   spilled 
upon  the  trap,  wash  it  off,   and  change  the  bait  every  night. 

NORTHERN  OR  CANADIAN  LYNX. — The  northern  lynx  is  a  fierce 
and  subtle  creature,  exhibiting  most  of  the  traits  of  character  which 
distinguish  animals  of  the  cat  kind.  To  the  smaller  quadrupeds, 
such  as  rabbits,  hares,  lemings,  &c.,  it  is  exceedingly  destructive, 
never  leaving  the  vicinities  they  frequent  until  their  numbers  are 
altogether  destroyed,  or  exceedingly  thinned.  But  the  ravages  of 
the  northern  lynx  are  not  confined  to  such  small  game  ;  it  drops 
from  the  branches  of  trees  on  the  necks  of  deer,  and  clinging 
firmly  with  its  sharp  hooked  claws,  ceases  not  to  tear  at  the  throat 
and  drink  the  blood  of  the  animal  until  it  sinks  exhausted  and  ex- 
pires. It  attacks  sheep  and  calves  in  the  same  manner,  and  preys 
upon  wild  turkeys  and  other  birds,  which  it  is  capable  of  surpris- 
ing, even  on  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees. 

The  northern  lynx  is  fearful  of  man,  offers  very  little  resistance 
when  attacked,  and  is  easily  killed  by  a  smart  blow  over  the  back. 
This  animal  is  not  often  found  to  approach  closely  to  settlements, 
though  occasionally  it  does,  when  it  is  destructive  to  sheep  and 
calves,  but  frequents  the  plains  and  woods  where  the  animals  on 
which  it  subsists  are  obtained  in  the  greatest  abundance. 

The  northern  lynx  has  a  large  body  and  strong  legs,  and  mea- 
sures about  three  feet  from  the  tip  of  its  nose  to  the  end  of  its 
tail,  which  is  about  six  or  seven  inches  long,  and  black  for  half  its 
length  towards  the  extremity.  The  head  is  thick  and  round,  and 
the  ears  sharp  and  tipped  with  a  tuft  of  black  hair.  There  are 
four  or  five  small  undulating  bands  on  the  cheeks,  and  the  labial 
whiskers  are  white.  The  animal  is  about  sixteen  inches  high. 

The  general  color  of  the  northern  lynx  is  deep  reddish,  marked 
on  the  flanks  with  small  oblong  spots  of  a  reddish  brown,  with 
small  round  spots  of  the  same  color  on  the  limbs.  The  ears 
are  black  externally,  but  covered  by  an  angular  space  of  shining 


10  THE   PESTS   OF   THE   FARM. 

ash  color ;  Jie  eyes  are  surrounded  by  a  whitish  circle  to  a 
black  longitudinal  mark  above  them,  running  from  each  side  to- 
ward the  front.  The  back  is  never  worked  by  a  black  band  along 
its  middle. 

In  sumn  3r  dress  the  pelage  is  short,  the  hair  being  bra*  A  at 


THE    LYNX. 

the  base  and  of  a  bright  red  at  the  point.  In  winter  the  hairs  aro 
longer  and  all  their  points  are  whitish  ;  the  silky  hairs,  which  are 
most  numerous  and  long  in  winter,  render  the  color  of  the  animal 
ash  or  whitish,  which  in  summer  gives  place  to  the  more  decided 
red,  marked  with  brown  spots.  The  lynx  is  to  be  shot  or  caught 
by  traps,  like  the  wild  cat. 

THE  SKUNK. — Pedestrians,  called  by  business  or  pleasure  to 
ramble  through  the  country  during  the  morning  or  evening  twi- 
light, occasionally  see  a  small  and  pretty  animal  a  short  distance 
before  them  in  the  path,  scampering  forward  without  appearing 
much  alarmed,  and  advancing  in  a  zig-zag  or  somewhat  serpentine 
direction.  Experienced  persons  generally  delay  long  enough  to 
allow  this  unwelcome  fellow-traveler  to  withdraw  from  the  path  : 
but  it  often  happens  that  a  view  of  the  animal  arouses  the  ardor 


QUADRUPEDS.  11 

of  the  observer,  who  in  his  fondness  for  sport  thinks  not  of  any 
result  but  that  of  sec  uring  a  prize.  It  would  be  more  prudent  to 
rest  content  with  pelting  this  quadruped  from  a  safe  distance,  or  to 
drive  it  away  by  shouting  loudly  ;  but  almost  all  inexperienced 
persons,  the  first  time  such  an  opportunity  occurs,  rush  forward 
with  intent  to  run  the  animal  down.  This  appears  to  be  an  easy 
task  ;  in  a  few  moments  it  is  almost  overtaken  ;  a  few  more  strides, 
and  the  victim  may  be  grasped  by  its  long  and  waving  tail — but 
that  tail  is  now  suddenly  curled  over  the  back,  its  pace  is  slacken- 
ed, and  in  one  instant  the  condition  of  things  is  entirely  reversed  ; 
— the  lately  triumphant  pursuer  is  eagerly  flying  from  his  intended 
prize,  involved  in  an  atmosphere  of  stench,  gasping  for  breath,  or 
blinded  and  smarting  with  pain,  if  his  approach  were  sufficiently 
close  to  allow  of  his  being  struck  in  the  eyes  by  the  pestilent  fluid 
of  the  skunk.  Should  the  attack  on  this  creature  be  led  by  a  dog, 
and  he  be  close  at  hand  when  the  disgusting  discharge  is  made,  he 
runs  with  tail  between  his  legs  howling  away,  and  by  thrusting  his 
nose  into  the  soil  as  he  retreats,  tries  to  escape  from  the  horrible 
effluvium  which  renders  the  air  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
skunk  too  stifling  to  be  endured.  Thus  is  an  animal,  possessed  of 
very  trifling  strength  and  no  peculiar  sagacity,  protected  by  the 
hand  of  nature  against  the  most  powerful  and  destructive  enemies. 
A  few  glands  secrete  a  most  noisome  and  intolerably  stinking  fluid, 
and  this  scattered  with  peculiar  force  upon  the  body  of  his  ene- 
mies, or  even  in  the  air,  is  sufficient  to  disarm  the  violence 
of  most  quadrupeds,  and  induce  man  himself  rather  to  avoid  than 
to  seek  an  encounter. 

The  organs  by  which  this  fluid  is  formed,  are  placed  near  the 
termination  of  the  digestive  tube,  and  the  ducts  from  the  glands 
open  into  the  rectum,  by  the  aid  of  whose  muscles  the  fluid  is 
ejected  with  astonishing  force,  and  is  aimed  with  great  accuracy, 
rarely  missing  the  object,  if  discharged  while  within  the  proper 
distance.  The  faculty  this  animal  possesses  of  annoying  its  ene- 
mies by  the  discharge  of  the  fluid  just  mentioned,  causes  it  rather 
to  be  shunned  than  hunted,  which  the  value  of  its  skin  would 
otherwise  be  sure  to  occasion. 

The  skunk  inhabits  the  whole  of  North  America,  and  is  also 
found  throughout  a  considerable  part  of  the  southern  portion  of 
the  continent.  As  the  colored  markings  vary  exceedingly  in  dif- 
ferent individuals,  it  is  not  surprising  that  naturalists  have  made 
several  species  of  this  animal,  though  without  any  foundation  in 


12  THE   PESTS  OF  THE   FARM. 

nature.  All  the  species  proposed  by  systematic  writers  are  re- 
ducible to  one.  the  subject  of  this  article,  Mephitis  Americana,  01 
American  skunk. 

The  fetor  produced  by  the  skunk  is  especially  characterized  by- 
all  who  have  experienced  it  as  suffocating  or  stifling,  which  is 
owing  to  its  peculiar  concentration.  The  predominant  odor  is  that 
of  muskiness,  but  in  so  condensed  and  aggravated  a  form  as  to 
render  it  almost  insupportable,  even  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  spot  where  it  is  first  discharged.  A  very  good  idea  may  be 
formed  of  this  stench  by  breaking  and  smelling  a  leaf  or  stalk  of 
the  plant  called  skunk  cabbage  (the  Dracontium  fetidum,  or  po- 
thos  fetidum),  resembling  it  in  every  respect  except  in  strength, 
which  perhaps  no  artificial  accumulation  of  this  vile  scent  could 
ever  equal. 

The  fluid  ejected  by  the  skunk  is  not  merely  offensive  by  its 
stench,  but  also  in  consequence  of  its  highly  stimulating  and  acri- 
monious qualities.  When  any  of  it  is  thrown  into  the  eyes,  it  is 
productive  of  very  violent  and  dangerous  inflammation  ;  we  must 
suppose  that  this  peculiar  acrimony,  rather  than  any  mere  offen- 
siveness  of  odor,  is  the  cause  of  the  marked  repugnance  evinced 
by  dogs,  as  these  animals  show  not  the  slightest  sign  of  uneasi- 
ness from  the  presence  of  the  most  nauseous  and  putrid  effluvia 
from  animal  or  vegetable  substances,  yet  run  howling  and  trying 
to  thrust  their  noses  into  the  ground  after  having  been  exposed  to 
this  pungent  perfume  from  the  skunk. 

In  its  extreme  volatility  it  bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to 
true  musk.  The  smallest  drop  is  sufficient  to  render  a  garment 
detestable  to  the  wearer  and  his  companions  for  a  great  duration 
of  time,  and  without  any  perceptible  diminution  of  intensity. 
Washing,  smoking,  baking  and  burying  articles  of  dress,  and  in 
fact  every  effort  short  of  destroying  the  materials  of  which  they 
are  made,  seem  to  be  equally  inefficient  for  its  removal.  This 
scent  is  not  only  thus  enduring  when  the  fluid  is  sprinkled  upon 
clothing,  but  the  spot  where  the  animal  is  killed,  or  where  the 
matter  was  ejected,  retains  it  for  a  great  length  of  time. 

If  the  skunk  be  killed  while  unsuspicious  of  the  approach  of 
danger,  or  before  time  has  been  allowed  for  the  discharge  of 
his  artillery  of  perfume,  the  animal  is  not  in  any  way  disagreeable, 
and  may  be  approached  closely  or  even  eaten  without  the  least 
unpleasantness,  if  the  glands  be  carefully  taken  out.  Its  flesh, 
when  the  oaorous  parts  have  been  carefully  removed,  is  said  to  be 


QUADRUPEDS.  13 

well  flavored,  anl  resembles  that  of  a  pig  considerably.  It  is 
eaten  by  the  Indians,  and  occasionally  by  hunters,  with  much 
relish. 

The  skunk  is  most  generally  found  in  the  forests  or  their  im- 
mediate •vicinity,  having  its  den  either  in  the  hollow  of  an  old 
tree  or  stump,  or  an  excavation  in  the  ground.  It  feeds  upon 
the  young  and  eggs  of  birds,  and  on  small  quadrupeds,  wild 
fruits,  <fcc.  Occasionally  the  skunk  gains  access  to  the  poultry- 
yard,  where  it  does  much  mischief  by  breaking  and  sucking  the 
eggs,  or  by  killing  the  fowls.  When  resident  in  the  vicinity  of 
farm-houses,  it  remains  for  a  long  time  without  giving  notice  of 
its  presence  by  emitting  its  offensive  fluid,  which  proves  how  ri- 
diculous is  the  notion  that  the  urine  of  this  animal  is  the  source 
of  its  disgusting  fetor ;  for  were  this  the  fact,  the  whole  country 
it  inhabits  would  be  rendered  almost  insupportable  to  every 
other  creature. 

We  have  already  stated  that  the  color  of  the  hair  is  various 
in  different  individuals  of  this  species  at  different  seasons  and 
periods  of  life.  Very  commonly  it  is  of  a  blackish  brown  over 
the  whole  of  the  body,  except  on  the  top  of  the  head,  or  imme- 
diately between  the  ears  where  there  is  a  white  spot,  and  the  tip 
of  the  tail,  also,  is  white.  Some  individuals  have  a  slight  white 
mark  on  the  breast.  The  hairs  of  the  tail  are  long  and  bushy, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  their  tips,  are  of  a  dark  brown  color. 
But,  as  heretofore  stated,  scarcely  two  of  them  are  colored  pre- 
cisely in  the  same  way.  The  length  of  a  full-grown  skunk  is  about 
eighteen  inches,  and  the  tail  about  seven,  the  long  hair  at  the  ex- 
tremity making  nearly  one-half  of  this  length. 

The  best  way  of  destroying  the  skunk  is  the  trap.  The  same 
form  of  trap  recommended  for  the  wild  cat  will  answer,  but  it  should 
be  of  smaller  size.  Box-traps  have  been  recommended  ;  but  I  have 
little  confidence  in  them,  and  prefer  the  steel.  A  few  leaves  or 
grass  should  be  cast  over  the  trap,  in  order  to  disguise  its  character. 
The  skunk  is  not  a  very  sagacious  animal,  however,  and  his  want 
of  cunning  renders  his  capture,  by  the  preceding  method,  very  easy. 
If  a  box-trap  be  used  at  all,  let  it  be  a  long  one,  open  at  both  ends  ; 
cast  bushes  over  it ;  bait  and  trail  the  bait  for  some  distance  along 
the  path  at  both  extremities  of  the  trap. 

THE  WEASEL.— Among  the  small  quadrupeds  inhabiting  Ame- 
rica, few  are  to  be  found  equaling  the  weasel  or  ermine  w 


14  THE   PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

beauty — perhaps  none  that  excel  it  in  the  qualities  of  courage,  grace- 
ful celerity  of  movement,  and  untiring  activity.  Its  whole  aspect  in- 
spires the  beholder  with  an  idea  of  its  character  which  is  well  sup- 
ported by  its  actions.  The  long  and  slender  body,  bright  and  pier- 
cing eyes,  keen  teeth  and  sharp  claws,  clearly  show  that,  however  di- 
minutive the  animal  may  appear,  it  is  destined  by  nature  to  destroy 
other  creatures  more  numerous  and  less  powerful  than  those  of  its 
own  race ;  this  length  and  slenderness  of  body  are  accompanied  by  a 
peculiar  degree  of  flexibility,  and  by  a  strength  of  limb,  which,  in 
so  small  an  animal,  may  be  fairly  esteemed  surprising.  There  is 
scarcely  an  opening  through  which  its  prey  can  enter,  where  the 
weasel  cannot  follow,  and  having  once  gained  access,  its  instinctive 
destructiveness  is  only  allayed  when  no  other  victim  remains  to 
be  slaughtered. 

In  the  northern  parts  of  this  continent,  and  the  northern  por- 
tions of  Asia,  the  ermine  is  found  in  the  greatest  abundance  ;  yet 
it  is  by  no  means  limited  to  northern  regions,  since  it  is  found 
throughout  a  vast  expanse  of  country,  reaching  from  the  highest 
northern  latitudes  to  the  middle  states  of  the  Union.  In  the  mid- 
dle and  eastern  states  it  is  most  generally  known  as  the  weasel  / 
farther  north  it  is  called  stoat  in  its  summer,  and  ermine  in  its  win- 
ter pelage  of  pure  white. 

The  habits  of  the  ermine  weasel  are  very  analogous  to  those  of 
the  common  weasel  of  Europe,  and  as  its  general  configuration  is 
so  nearly  similar,  it  is  not  surprising  that  this  animal  should  have 
been  confounded  with  the  European  species.  This  weasel  fre- 
quents the  barns  and  out-houses  of  plantations,  and  its  retreat  is 
generally  well  secured  beneath  the  floors  or  rafters,  amid  accumu- 
lations of  timber  or  stone,  or  in  similar  situations.  Mice  and 
various  other  depredators  on  the  granary  are  the  special  objects  of 
its  pursuit,  and  the  rapid  multiplication  of  many  of  these  devour- 
ers  of  grain  could  scarcely  be  sufficiently  restrained,  were  it  not 
that  the  weasel  is  capable  of  tracing  them  throughout  their  1  iby- 
rinths,  and  possesses  the  disposition  to  destroy  all  that  come 
within  its  reach.  If  the  efforts  of  this  weasel  were  confined  to  the 
destruction  of  these  little  depredators,  we  might  consider  it  as  the 
best  friend  to  the  husbandman ;  but  occasionally  a  contribution  is 
levied  on  the  hen-roost,  and  the  morning's  light  exhibits  an  uni- 
versal slaughter  of  the  poultry,  whose  throats  are  cut,  or  heads 
eaten  off.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  prevent  such  occurrences  when 
these  animals  are  resident  in  the  vicinity,  as  they  can  gain  access 


QUADRUPEDS.  15 

where  few  other  creatures  can  enter ;  then  their  swiftness  of  mo- 
tion and  keen  bite  soon  render  the  escape  of  their  victims  impos- 
sible. 

Still  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  there  are  many  situations  in 
which  the  services  of  this  little  animal  may  bo  esteemed  a  positive 
good  ;  for  such  is  the  fecundity  of  many  of  the  depredators  on  the 
grain,  that  notning  short  of  the  destruction  of  the  whole  crop 
would  ensue,  were  it  not  that  the  weasel  is  continually  thinning 
their  ranks  and  killing  greater  numbers  than  are  required  for  its 
mere  subsistence. 

The  disposition  which  makes  this  weasel  so  useful  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  forbids  an  attempt  to  increase  its  usefulness  by 
domestication,  for  the  purpose  of  freeing  our  houses  from  mice,  &c. 
Notwithstanding  it  might  be  so  far  tamed  as  to  take  up  its  resi- 
dence about  our  dwellings,  it  would  be  exceedingly  dangerous  to 
expose  the  lives  of  the  inmates  to  the  blood-thirstiness  of  this 
quadruped,  which  is  rendered  doubly  dangerous  from  the  circum- 
stance of  seeking  its  prey  during  the  hours  devoted  by  man  to 
sleep. 

The  weasel  is  found  in  greater  abundance  on  barren  grounds  or 
open  plains  than  in  the  woods,  which  in  all  probability  is  owing  to 
the  greater  number  of  mice  that  frequent  the  former  situations. 

While  pursuing  their  prey,  weasels  are  said  to  resemble  little 
hounds  running  upon  a  trail  ;  their  tails  are  carried  horizon- 
tally, while  with  eager  haste  and  most  agile  movements  they  fol- 
low their  prey  by  the  scent.  Except  when  in  their  summer  -dress, 
it  is  very  difficult  to  distinguish  their  actions,  as  in  winter  their 
pure  white  pelage  is  so  nearly  the  color  of  the  snow,  as  to  rendei 
it  almost  impossible  to  see  them.  When  the  weasel  is  hunted  and 
closely  pursued,  like  other  species  of  this  genus,  it  has  the  faculty 
of  ejecting  from  a  peculiar  glandular  apparatus,  a  fluid  of  a  pow- 
erful musky  odor ;  this,  though  it  may  serve  to  retard  the  pursuit 
of  some  of  its  enemies,  is  too  harmless  a  resource  to  save  the 
weasel  from  the  hands  of  man. 

There  is  but  little  probability  of  taming  the  weasel  unless  it  be 
captured  very  young,  and  even  then  the  period  of  its  mildness 
would  pass  away  with  its  early  youth.  When  caught  in  a  trap 
and  subsequently  kept  in  a  cage,  it  exhibits  every  sign  of  the  most 
unappeasable  disposition  to  kill  or  injure  every  being  it  is  able  to 
master.  Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  domesticate  the 
weasel,  but  all  without  success,  and  frequently  the  restlessness  and 


16  THE   PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

impatience  o?  the  animal  has  appeared  to  increase  with  the  dura- 
tion of  its  imprisonment. 

We  have  mentioned  that  in  the  eastern  and  middle  part  of  the 
United  States  die  ermine  weasel  frequents  out-houses,  stone-heaps, 
piles  of  timber,  &c.,  and  though  capable  of  following  its  prey  into 
small  holes,  does  not  burrow  in  the  earth. 

The  ermine  weasel,  in  its  summer  dress,  is  of  a  light  ferrugi- 
nous or  chestnut-brown  color  over  the  whole  of  the  head ;  this 
color  extends  in  a  rounded  spot  below  the  angle  of  the  jaw ;  the 
whole  back,  sides,  and  half  of  the  tail  next  the  body  being  of  the 
same  color.  The  other  portion  of  the  tail  is  blackish,  becoming 
gradually  darker  as  it  approaches  the  extremity,  where  it  is  quite 
black,  and  the  hairs  terminate  in  a  point  resembling  that  of  a 
camel's  hair  pencil.  The  external  and  anterior  half  of  the  fore-legs 
are  of  the  same  color  as  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  and  there  are 
three  small  spots  of  white  over  the  base  of  the  toes  of  the  right 
foot,  and  one  on  the  left,  over  the  first  or  shortest  digit. 

The  under  part  of  the  animal  is  nearly  of  a  pure  white,  begin- 
ning at  the  extremity  of  the  under  jaw  and  spreading  broadly  as 
it  passes  over  the  throat,  where  it  forms  a  point  on  each  side,  al- 
most reaching  to  the  base  of  the  ear.  The  white  then  narrows 
slightly  in  descending  the  neck,  spreads  broadly  upon  the  breast, 
and  then  suddenly  growing  narrower,  passes  down  the  inner  and 
posterior  part  of  the  fore  legs.  Thence  it  passes  along  the  belly, 
where  it  is  again  narrowed,  and  then  spreading  out  widely  at  the 
groin,  it  terminates  at  the  upper  and  anterior  part  of  the  thigh, 
becoming  visible  for  a  short  distance  on  its  outside. 

The  fur  in  summer  is  short,  soft  and  silky  to  the  touch,  not 
varying  perceptibly  in  length  except  on  the  snout,  where  it  is  quite 
short,  and  covering  the  digits  of  the  fore  and  hind  feet,  where  it  is 
rather  longer  than  on  the  other  parts,  and  conceals  the  nails  en- 
tirely. On  the  tail  the  hairs  are  longer  and  coarser  than  on  the 
rest  of  the  body,  though  still  soft. 

The  ermine  weasel,  in  its  winter  pelage  dress,  is  of  a  pure  white 
over  the  whole  head,  body,  and  limbs ;  half  of  the  tail  to  its  ex- 
tremity only  retaining  its  black  color.  This  white  color  is  so  puro 
in  the  northern  regions  as  to  render  it  almost  impossible  to  dis- 
tinguish these  animals  upon  the  snow,  when  the  ends  of  their  tails 
are  not  in  sight.  The  whiteness  is  not  always  thus  pure,  but  tha 
fur  is  slightly  tinted  with  pale  yellow  on  the  tip. 


QUADRUPEDS.  17 

The  ear  of  tJ^e  ermine  weasel  is  broad  at  its  '..-ase,  and  the  ori- 
fice leading  tc  the  internal  ear  large ;  the  ears-  are  not  covered 
with  fur  on  their  posterior  surface,  but  by  a  very  short  down.  On 
the  superior  and  anterior  part  of  the  external  ear,  there  is  some 
hair  of  considerable  length  growing  from  that  part  of  the  ear 
which  would  correspond  with  the  helix  and  anti-helix  of  the  human 
ear,  and  almost  covering  the  concha.  The  eyes  of  this  animal  are 
small  and  black,  yet  prominent,  clear,  and  lustrous. 

The  fur  of  the  ermine  becomes  longer,  thicker,  and  finer  in  win- 
ter than  in  summer ;  this  effect  seems  to  be  a  general  consequence 
of  rigorous  seasons  on  all  animals,  without  reference  to  the  perma- 
nence or  mutability  of  their  coloring. 

To  take  these  pests,  use  such  square  steel  traps  as  are  already 
described,  but  smaller ;  bait  with  small  birds,  their  tails  dipped  in 
musk  and  aniseed  ;  the  weasel  displaying  as  strong  a  predilection 
for  this  substance  as  the  cat  does  for  valerian. 

THE  COMMON  OTTER  varies  in  size — some  adult  specimens  mea- 
suring no  more  than  thirty-six  inches  in  length,  tail  inclusive ; 
while  others,  again,  are  to  be  found  from  four  and  a  half  to  five 
feet  long.  The  head  of  the  otter  is  broad  and  flat ;  its  muzzle  is 
broad,  rounded,  and  blunt ;  its  eyes  small  and  of  a  semicircular 
form  •,  the  body  is  long,  rounded,  and  veiy  flexible  ;  legs  short  and 
muscular ;  feet  furnished  with  five  sharp  clawed  toes,  webbed  to 
three-quarters  of  their  extent ;  tail  long,  muscular,  somewhat  flat- 
tened, and  tapering  to  its  extremity.  The  color  of  the  otter  is  a 
deep  blackish  brown  ;  the  sides  of  the  head,  the  front  of  the  neck, 
and  sometimes  the  breast,  brownish  grey  or  dusky  white.  The 
belly  is  usually,  but  not  invariably,  darker  than  the  back ;  the  fur 
is  short,  and  of  two  kinds ;  the  inferior  or  woolly  coat  is  exceed- 
ingly fine  and  close  ;  the  longer  hairs  are  soft  and  glossy,  those  on 
the  tail  rather  stiff  and  bristly.  On  either  side  of  the  nose,  and 
just  below  the  chin,  are  two  small  light-colored  spots.  So  much 
for  the  appearance  of  the  otter ;  we  r  ow  come  to  its  dwelling. 

The  native  haunt  of  the  otter  is  tl  e  river  bank,  where,  amongst 
the  reeds  and  sedge,  it  forms  a  deep  burrow,  in  which  it  brings 
forth  and  rears  its  young.  Its  principal  food  is  fish,  which  it 
catches  with  singular  dexterity.  It  lives  almost  wholly  in  the 
water,  and  -seldom  leaves  it  except  to  devour  its  prey ;  on  land  it 
does  not  usually  remain  long  at  any  one  time,  and  the  slightest 
alarm  is  sufficient  to  cause  it  to  plunge  into  the  stream.  Yet,  na- 
tural as  seems  a  watery  residence  to  this  creature,  its  burrow  is  per- 


18  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

fectly  dry  ;  were  it  t.  become  otherwise,  it  would  be  quickly  aban 
doned.  The  entrance,  indeed,  is  invariably  under  water,  but  its 
course  then  points  upwards  into  the  bank,  towards  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  arid  it  is  even  provided  with  several  lodges  or  apart- 
ments at  different  heights,  into  which  it  may  retire  in  case  of 
floods,  throwing  up  the  earth  behind  it  as  it  proceeds  into  the  re- 
cesses of  its  retreat ;  and  when  it  has  reached  the  last  and  most 
secure  chamber,  it  opens  a  small  hole  in  the  roof  for  the  admission 
of  atmospheric  air,  without  which  the  animal  could  not  of  course 
exist  many  minutes  ;  and  should  the  flood  rise  so  high  as  to  burst 
into  this  last  place  of  refuge,  the  animal  will  open  a  passage  through 
the  roof,  and  venture  forth  upon  land,  rather  than  remain  in  a 
damp  and  muddy  bed.  During  severe  floods,  otters  are  not  un- 
frequently  surprised  at  some  distance  from  the  water,  and  taken. 

In  a,  wild  state,  the  otter  is  fierce  and  daring — will  make  a  de- 
termined resistance  when  attacked  by  dogs — and  befhg  endued 
with  no  inconsiderable  strength  of  jaw,  it  often  punishes  its  assail- 
ants terribly.  I  have  myself  seen  it  break  the  fore-leg  of  a  stout 
terrier. 

The  otter  is  easily  rendered  tame,  especially  if  taken  young,  and 
may  be  taught  to  follow  its  master  like  a  dog,  and  even  to  fish  for 
him,  cheerfully  resigning  its  prey  when  taken,  and  dashing  into 
the  water  in  search  of  more. 

The  common  otter  is  only  to  be  regarded  as  a  pest  when  fish 
ponds  or  rivers  are  concerned.     His  habits  are  interesting,  and  of 
gentle  and  inoffensive  description,  and  his  race  is  not  so  numeroc. 
as  to  require  or  deserve  extirpation. 

THE  AMERICAN  PORCUPINE. — The  American  Porcupine  exhibit* 
none  of  the  long  and  large  quills  which  are  so  conspicuous  and  formi- 
dable in  the  European  species,  and  the  short  spines  or  prickles 
which  are  thickly  set  over  all  the  superior  parts  of  its  body  are 
covered  by  a  long  coarse  hair,  which  almost  entirely  conceals  them. 
These  spines  are  not  more  than  two  inches  and  a  half  in  length, 
yet  form  a  very  efficient  protection  to  our  animal  against  every 
other  enemy  but  man.  Too  slow  in  its  movements  to  escape  by 
flight,  on  the  approach  of  danger  the  porcupine  places  his  head 
between  his  legs,  and  folds  his  body  into  a  globular  mass,  erecting 
his  pointed  and  barbed  spines.  The  cunning  caution  of  the  fox, 
the  furious  violence  of  the  wolf,  and  the  persevering  attacks  of  the 
domestic  dog,  are  alike  fruitless.  At  every  attempt  to  bite  the 
porcupine,  the  nose  and  mouth  of  the  aggressor  are  severely  wound- 


QUADRUPEDS.  19 

ed,  and  the  pain  increased  by  every  renewed  effort,  as  the  quills  of 
the  porcupine  are  left  sticking  in  the  wounds,  and  the  death  of  the 
assailant  is  frequently  the  consequence  of  the  violent  irritation  and 
inflammation  thus  produced. 

In  the  remote  and  unsettled  parts  of  Pennsylvania  the  porcupine 
is  still  occasionally  found,  but  south  of  this  state  it  is  almost  un- 
known. According  to  Catesby  it  never  was  found  in  that  direc- 
tion beyond  Virginia,  where  it  was  quite  rare.  In  the  Hudson's 
Bay  country,  Canada,  and  New  England,  as  well  as  in  some  parts 
of  the  western  states,  throughout  the  country  lying  between  the 
Eocky  Mountains  and  the  great  western  rivers,  they  are  found  in 
great  abundance,  and  are  highly  prized  by  the  aboriginals,  both  for 
the  sake  of  their  flesh  and  their  quills,  which  are  extensively  em- 
ployed as  ornaments  to  their  dresses,  pipes,  weapons,  <fec. 

The  porcupine  passes  a  great  part  of  its  time  in  sleep,  and  ap- 
pears to  be  a  solitary  and  sluggish  animal,  very  seldom  leaving  its 
haunts,  except  in  search  of  food,  and  then  going  but  to  a 
short  distance.  The  bark  and  buds  of  trees,  such  as  the  willow, 
pine,  ash,  &c.,  constitute  its  food  during  the  winter  season ;  in 
summer,  various  wild  fruits  are  also  eaten  by  it. 

The  porcupine  is  only  a  pest,  as  he  may  occasion  the  death  of  a 
valuable  dog.  The  method  of  destroying  him  is  by  the  gun  and 
by  traps. 

THE  MOLE. — The  mole  is,  by  most  agriculturists,  ranked  among 
the  most  troublesome  pests  of  their  farm  ;  while  others  again  deny 
that  it  deserves  this  bad  character,  and  are  even  disposed  to  ex- 
patiate on  its  utility.  It  is  certain  that  the  mole  is  of  carnivorous, 
nay,  I  should  perhaps  say,  of  insectivorous  habits — its  food  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  worms,  slugs,  snails,  beetles,  cockchafers,  grubs, 
and  other  such  creatures.  In  destroying  these  there  can  be  no 
doubt  but  that  the  mole  does  good  service  to  the  farmer,  and  de- 
serves so  far  to  be  looked  on  with  some  degree  of  favor.  On  the 
other  hand,  howfever,  it  is  no  less  true  that  in  forming  its  burrow, 
the  mole  throws  up  a  heap  of  earth,  known  as  a  molehill,  which  is 
apt  to  interfere  with  the  progress  of  the  mowers.  Seme  say  that 
the  holes  also  are  serviceable  to  the  soil,  by  throwing  up  the  sub- 
soil, and  thus  renewing  the  surface,  but  it  must  be  it  the  same 
time  admitted  that  this  burrowing  loosens  and  often  disinters  the 
roots  of  grafn.  Whether,  therefore,  this  animal  is  to  be  regarded 
as  a  pest  or  not,  depends  on  the  opinion  of  the  individual  farmer 
on  whose  lands  he  may  make  his  appearance. 


20  THE   PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  moles  that  are  pests — viz.,  the  shrew- 
mole  and  the  star-nose  mole. 

The  shrew-mole  is  found  abundantly  in  North  America,  from 
Canada  to  Virginia ;  often  living  at  no  great  distance  from  water- 
courses,  or  in  dykes  thrown  up  to  protect  meadows  from  inunda- 
tion. But  so  far  from  exclusively  inhabiting  such  places,  as  stated 
in  various  books,  I  have  found  them  in  far  greater  numbers  at  a 
very  considerable  distance  from  any  water-course,  and  in  high 
oftener  than  low  grounds.  In  the  country  they  frequent  the  gar- 
dens, where  their  subterranean  galleries  are  sometimes  productive 
of  vexation  to  the  farmer,  especially  as  the  animal  occasionally 
courses  along  the  rows  of  pea-vines,  &c.,  apparently  for  the  purpose 
of  feeding  on  their  roots.  This,  we  shall  hereafter  learn,  is  most 
probably  an  error,  and  we  may  find  good  reasons  for  believing  that 
the  shrew-mole  should  be  considered  rather  as  a  benefactor  than  a 
depredator. 

The  shrew-mole  burrows  with  great  quickness,  and  travels  under 
ground  with  much  celerity  :  nothing  can  be  better  constructed  for 
this  purpose  than  its  broad  and  strong  hands,  or  fore-paws,  armed 
with  long  and  powerful  claws,  which  are  very  sharp  at  their  ex- 
tremities, and  slightly  curved  on  the  inside.  These  are  thrust  for- 
ward so  as  to  be  even  with  the  extremity  of  the  flexible  snout,  and 
the  earth  to  be  removed  is  pressed  outwards,  and  at  the  same  time 
thrown  backwards  with  remarkable  quickness.  The  soft  and 
polished  fur  Avith  which  this  animal  is  covered,  preventing  a  great 
degree  of  friction,  tends  to  facilitate  its  subterranean  march. 

Numerous  galleries,  communicating  with  each  other,  enable  the 
shrew-mole  to  travel  in  various  directions,  without  coming  to  the  sur- 
face, which  they  appear  to  do  very  rarely,  unless  their  progress  is  im- 
peded by  a  piece  of  ground  so  hard  as  to  defy  their  strength  and 
perseverance.  The  depth  of  their  burrows  depends  very  materially 
on  the  character  of  the  soil,  and  the  situation  of  the  place  :  sometimes 
we  find  them  running  for  a  great  distance,  at  a  depth  of  from  one  to 
three  inches,  and  again  we  trace  them  much  deeper;  after  follow- 
ing such  a  gallery  for  several  yards,  it  occasionally  communicates 
with  another  going  deep  into  the  earth. 

The  most  remarkable  circumstance  connected  with  these  bur- 
rows is  the  number  of  hills  of  loose  dirt  which  are  frequently 
formed  over  the  surface  of  them.  These  hills  of  loose  earth  are 
usually  found  in  considerable  numbers,  at  a  distance  of  two  feet  or 
a  httle  more  apart,  being  from  four  to  six  inches  high,  and  about 


QUADRUPEDS.  21 

the  same  in  diameter.  I  have  often  examined  these  eminences, 
and  have  never  been  able  fully  to  understand  how  they  are  form- 
ed ;  a  slight  motion  is  observed  at  the  surface,  and  presently  this 
loose  earth  is  seen  to  be  worked  up  through  a  small  orifice, 
whence,  falling  on  all  sides,  by  its  accumulation  the  hills  just  men- 
tioned are  produced.  It  seems  to  be  brought  from  some  distance, 
for  on  breaking  up  the  gallery,  it  is  evident  that  more  earth  had 
been  thrown  out  than  could  have  been  removed  in  excavating  the 
immediately  adj  Dining  portions  of  the  burrow.  In  one  instance  I 
have  seen  the  shrew-mole  show  the  extremity  of  its  snout  from  the 
centre  of  one  of  these  loose  hills,  where  it  had  come  at  mid-day,  as 
if  for  the  purpose  of  enjoying  the  sunshine,  without  exposing  its 
body  to  the  full  influence  of  the  external  air. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  burrows  are  simply  oval- 
arched  galleries,  running  forward  either  straight  or  in  gentle 
curvatures,  at  the  depth  heretofore  mentioned,  and  they  are  most 
regular  in  soils  abounding  in  earth-worms.  In  the  dry  and  sandy 
soil  I  have  found  them  very  irregular  in  direction  and  depth,  and  in 
the  woods,  uniformly  leading  round  the  roots  of  trees,  under  which 
large  excavations  are  frequently  to  be  traced.  We  can  readily  un- 
derstand the  object  of  these  excavations  when  we  recollect  that  the 
ants  very  often  have  their  nests  in  such  situations,  and  their  larvae 
or  eggs  constitute  a  favorite  food  of  the  shrew-mole.  The  burrows 
made  by  this  animal  are  sometimes  found  to  terminate  under  large 
stones,  where  it  resorts  to  gather  the  insects,  which  are  numerous 
in  such  situations.  I  have  traced  a  burrow  of  this  sort  close  to  a 
barn  wall,  and  then  following  it  nearly  around  the  whole  house, 
have  found  that  it  passed  under  every  large  stone  in  its  vicinity, 
although  not  directly  in  the  general  course  of  the  gallery,  the 
cavity  being  much  larger  beneath  the  stones  than  elsewhere. 

The  favorite  food  of  the  shrew-mole  is  the  earth-worm ;  grubs 
and  insects  of  various  kinds  he  destroys  in  great  quantities,  and  it 
may  fairly  be  questioned  whether  the  good  done  in  this  way  does 
not  more  than  overbalance  any  evil  attendant  on  its  presence.  It  is 
true  that  this  animal  is  accused  of  eating  grass  roots,  and  roots  of 
succulent  vegetables,  and  may  thus  be  productive  of  some  mis- 
chief in  gardens,  but  scarcely  to  so  great  a  degree  as  to  constitute 
a  serious  evil.  The  presence  of  the  shrew-mole  in  fields  of  Indian 
corn  appears  to  be  decidedly  advantageous  from  the  destruction  of 
great  numbers  of  slugs  and  worms ;  but  in  dry  seasons  these  ani- 
mals, if  numerous,  may  injure  small  gi"iin  or  grasses  to  a  consider* 


22  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

able  extant,  not  only  by  the  wounds  they  inflict  on  the  root  with 
their  sharp  claws,  but  by  raising  the  sod  while  forming  their  bur- 
rows, so  as  to  withdraw  the  roots  from  the  influence  of  the  moist 
soil  below. 

THE  STAR-NOSE  MOLE  frequents  the  banks  of  rivulets,  and  the 
soft  soil  of  adjacent  meadows,  where  their  burrows  are  most  nu- 
merous, and  apparently  interminable  ;  in  many  places  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  advance  a  step  without  breaking  down  their  galleries, 
by  which  the  surface  is  thrown  into  ridges,  and  the  surface  of  the 
green  sward  in  no  slight  degree  disfigured.  The  excavations  which 
are  most  continuous,  and  appear  to  be  most  frequented,  are  placed 
at  a  short  distance  below  the  grass  roots,  on  the  banks  of  small 
streams ;  these  are  to  be  traced  along  their  margins,  following 
every  inflexion,  and  making  frequent  circuits  in  order  to  pass  large 
stones  or  roots  of  trees,  to  regain  their  usual  proximity  to  the  sur- 
face nearest  the  water. 

The  form  of  the  burrow  does  not  perceptibly  differ  from  that 
made  by  the  shrew-mole ;  but  very  few  hills  are  to  be  found  in 
the  localities  inhabited  by  the  star-nose.  The  chamber-cell  resem- 
bles that  described  in  the  last  chapter,  being  a  space  of  several 
inches  dug  out  of  some  spot  where  the  clay  is  tenacious,  and  the 
cell  least  exposed  to  injury  from  the  weather  or  other  accidents. 

The  system  of  dentition  peculiar  to  this  genus,  would  lead  to 
the  inference  that  the  quality  of  its  food  must  in  some  respects 
differ  from  that  used  by  the  shrew-mole ;  but  on  this  point  it  is 
not  easy  to  say  more,  than  that  as  the  star-nose  prefers  moist  and 
low  situations,  and  the  shrew-mole  is  most  frequently  found  in  dry, 
and  rather  elevated  spots,  they  feed  on  the  larvae  and  insects  pro- 
per to  such  places,  which  are  doubtless  of  dissimilar  kinds.  In  a 
state  of  captivity  both  animals  feed  readily  on  flesh,  either  raw  or 
cooked,  and  neither  seem  to  show  any  fondness  for,  nor  willingness 
to  eat,  vegetable  matter. 

My  duty  consists  merely  in  pointing  out  the  most  efficacious 
method  of  destroying  the  animal :  those  farmers  who  think  he 
should  be  rather  protected  than  warred  against,  are  not  obliged  to 
use  the  means  I  merely  place  within  their  reach. 

Few  dogs  will  kill  or  even  mouth  the  mole,  and  if  a  dead  one 
be  presented  to  a  dog,  he  will  usually  curl  up  his  lips,  and  turn 
frcm  it  in  apparent  disgust.  I  have  heard  this  asserted  of  cats 
also,  but  am  not  positive  of  the  correctness  of  the  idea,  never  hav- 
ing rayself  made  the  experiment.  Traps  and  poison  are  the  means 


QUADRUPEDS,  23 

best  calculated  to  effect  their  extirpation.  The  ordinary  mole-trap 
is  to  be  obtained  from  any  of  the  agricultural  implement-makers, 
or  any  of  the  farm  (*eed-shops.  The  principle  of  its  construction 
Depends  on  a  spring  formed  of  some  elastic  sort  of  twig,  stuck  in 
the  ground,  and  l^nt  until  its  other  extremity  is  attached  to  the 
trap.  The  trap  is  placed  in  the  mole's  run,  and  is  baited  with 
earth-worms  or  a  bit  of  raw  meat.  On  the  mole  entering  the  trap 
and  setting  the  spring  at  liberty,  it  is  suddenly  caught  up,  a  noose 
drawn  tight  by  the  reaction  of  the  twig,  and  the  mole  suspended 
by  the  neck. 

I  recently  met  with  what  I  conceive  to  be  a  far  more  efficacious, 
and  less  troublesome  mode  of  destroying  moles. 

Take  a  quantity  of  fresh  worms,  put  them  in  a  wooden  box, 
with  a  small  quantity  of  carbonate  of  barytes  in  powder,  and  let 
them  remain  for  an  hour  or  two  ;  then  find  out  the  runs  where  the 
moles  leave  the  .fences  for  the  land,  lay  in  every  run  five  or  six 
worms,  and  continue  doing  so  as  long  as  the  worms  are  taken 
away  by  the  moles.  I  was  infested  with  moles  before  I  used  this 
remedy,  which  was  about  fifteen  years  since,  but  have  never  been 
injured  since,  by  giving  a  little  attention  to  them  in  the  spring. 

THE  EUROPEAN  RABBIT  has  been  introduced  into  America,  and 
will  soon  be  spread  widely. 

The  rabbit  is  unquestionably,  when  left  to  its  own  unrestrained 
devices,  a  very  serious  pest,  but  an  animal  which  may,  neverthe- 
less, with  proper  management,  be  rendered  a  very  considerable 
source  of  emolument,  while  the  annoyance  they  have  occasioned 
will  be,  at  the  same  time,  abated. 

If  you  would  have  rabbits  and  only  profit,  never  suffer  by  them  ; 
keep  them  in  enclosures,  and  provide  them  with  well-sheltered  huts. 
The  hutches  should  stand  on  dry  ground,  and  be  well  ventilated. 
If  sloping,  so  much  the  better,  as  this  allows  the  wet  to  run,  and  let 
there  be  tanks  placed  in  front  to  receive  it.  It  is,  when  mixed 
with  straw,  valuable  as  manure. 

Be  careful  while  you  have  your  rabbit-house  well  ventilated, 
that  it  at  the  same  time  afford  them  sufficient  shelter,  and*  be  care- 
fully preserved  from  damp.  Do  not  give  green  food  in  a  wet 
state ;  it>  is  apt  to  produce  the  rot.  If,  however,  a  proportionate 
quantity  of  oats  or  other  hard  food  be  given,  you  need  have  no 
fear  on  this  head.  Keep  them  clean.  Let  the  breeding-boxes 
have  two  apartments — one  for  day,  and  the  other,  furnished  with 
a  bed,  for  night.  Do  not  give  more  food  than  will  be  consumed 


2-i  THE   PESTS  OF   THE   FARM. 

at  one  time,  and  keep  the  buc.ks  apart.  The  doe  will  breed  at  five 
or  six  months  old,  and  she  carries  her  young  thirty  days.  But  the 
buck  should  not  be  again  admitted  to  her  until  about  four  days 
after  kindling,  and  he  should  be  kept  from  her  during  her  preg- 
nancy, or  he  will  cause  her  to  cast  her  young.  The  young  may 
be  weaned  at  the  age  of  from  four  to  five  weeks.  The  number  01 
young  produced  at  each  Utter  is  from  ten  to  thirteen.  If  the  do* 
be  weak  after  parturition,  she  may  be  given  beer  caudle,  which  she 
will  drink  greedily,  or  warm  grains,  or  tepid  milk  and  water 
Oats  may  be  given  daily. 


THE    RABBIT. 

Now  as  to  the  Rabbit  in  the  character  of  a  nuisance  :  you  can 
never  be  fully  on  your  guard  against  his  visits,  and  one  is  destroyed 
only  to  make  room  for  another.  Nooses  placed  in  the  paths  he  is 
known  to  frequent  are  recommended  by  some. 

The  Rabbit  commits  but  little  mischief  amongst  the  green  crops 
il  comparison  with  its  ravages  amongst  young  trees,  and  growing 
piants ;  and  they  may  be  prevented  from  injuring  these  by  a  very 
simple  process.  Mix  common  coal  tar  \^ith  equal  portions  of  cow- 
dung  and  lime,  and  with  a  brush  smear  the  stems  to  the  height  oi 


QUADRUPEDS.  25 

about  thirty  inches  from  the  ground.  The  lepetition  of  this  treat- 
ment annually  will  effectually  preserve  the  trees  from  their  attacks, 
while  the  numbers  of  the  rabbits  must,  of  course,  be  kept  within 
proper  bounds  by  shooting  or  ferreting.  There  are  also  different 
descriptions  of  net  used  for  taking  rabbits,  som§  account  of  which 
may  prove  useful.  The  fold-nets  are  so  laid  as  to  form  an  enclo- 
sure between  the  burrows  and  the  usual  place  of  feeding ;  into 
these  the  rabbits  are  driven  by  dogs  at  night.  The  entrance  is 
then  closed,  and  in  the  morning  the  rabbits  are  secured. 

The  spring-net  is  so  constructed,  as  to  close  on  pressure ;  it  is 
laid  round  a  grain  or  hay-stack,  and  numbers  will  be  thus  taken. 
The  best  mode  of  taking  rabbits  is  by  means  of  the  trap.  For  this 
purpose  dig  a  pit  in  the  run  most  commonly  frequented,  and  have 
it  considerably  wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top ;  across  this  lay 
a  board,  so  nicely  balanced  upon  a  central  pin,  that  the  weight  of 
the  rabbit  is  sufficient  to  weigh  it  down  at  the  extremity,  while,  at 
the  same  time,  that  weight  removed,  the  board  will  resume  its 
former  position.  Numbers  will  be  taken  by  this  method.  It  may 
be  useful  to  remark  that  a  rabbit  is  very  tenacious  of  life,  and  that 
it  will  frequently,  if  shot  in  the  rear,  succeed  in  making  its  escape ; 
in  shooting  them,  aim,  therefore,  always  for  the  head  ;  if  there  be 
an  earth  near,  and  it  be  only  struck  behind,  it  will  be  sure  to  escape 
into  it,  and  perish  and  rot  uselessly  in  its  burrow. 

THE  HARE. — This  is  the  true  name,  but  the  animal  is  frequently 
in  America  called  the  rabbit. 

In  various  parts  of  the  Union  the  American  hare  is  exceed- 
ingly common,  and  large  numbers  are  annually  destroyed  for 
the  sake  of  their  flesh  and  fur. 

The  timidity  and  defencelessness  characteristic  of  the  genus,  are 
well  illustrated  in  this  species,  which  has  no  protection  against  its 
numerous  enemies,  and  can  escape  by  flight  alone.  Its  peculiar 
color  must,  however,  minister  to  its  safety,  as  it  is  so  similar  to  the 
general  color  of  the  soil  as  to  require  a  close  attention  to  distinguish 
the  animal,  which  is  usually  passed  without  being  observed  by 
such  as  are  not  especially  in  search  of  it.  Yet  the  swiftness  and 
other  natural  advantages  of  the  hare,  insufficient  to  secure  it  from 
the  artifices  of  man,  or  from  being  preyed  upon  by  various  beasts 
and  birds,  would  not  prevent  the  species  from  soon  being  extin- 
guished, were  it  not  for  its  remarkable  fecundity. 

During  the  day-time  the  hare  remains  crouched  within  its  form, 
which  is  a  mere  space  of  the  size  of  the  animal,  upon  the  surface 
2 


26  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

of  the  ground,  cleared  of  grass,  and  sheltered  by  some  over-arching 
plant  ;  or  else  its  habitation  is  in  the  hollowed  trunk  of  a  tree,  or 
under  a  collection  of  stones,  &c. 

It  is  commonly  at  the  earLest  dawn,  while  the  dew-drops  still  glit- 
ter on  the  herbage,  or  when  the  fresh  verdure  is  concealed  beneath  a 
mantle  of  glistening  frost,  that  the  timorous  hare  ventures  forth  in 
quest  of  food,  or  courses  undisturbed  over  the  plains.  Occasion- 
ally during  the  day,  in  retired  and  little  frequented  parts  of  the 


THE    HARE. 

country,  an  individual  is  seen  to  scud  from  the  path,  where  it  has 
been  basking  in  the  sun  ;  but  the  best  time  for  studying  the 
habits  of  the  animal  is  during  moon-light  nights,  when  the  hare 
is  to  be  seen  sporting  with  its  companions  in  unrestrained  gambols, 
frisking  with  delighted  eagerness  around  its  mate,  or  busily  engag- 
ed in  cropping  its  food.  On  such  occasions  the  turnip  and  cab- 
bage fields  suffer  severely,  where  these  animals  are  numerous, 
though  in  general  they  are  not  productive  of  serious  injury. 
However,  when  food  is  scarce,  they  do  much  mischief  to  the  far- 
mers, by  destroying  the  bark  on  the  young  trees  in  the  nurseries, 
and  by  cutting  valuable  plants. 

The  hare  is  not  hunted  in  this  country  as  in  Europe,  but  is  gen- 
erally roused  by  a  dog,  and  shot,  or  is  caught  in  various  snares 
and  traj  s.  In  its  movements  our  hare  closely  resembles  the  com- 
mon hare  of  Europe,  bounding  along  with  great  celerity,  and  would 
no  doubt,  when  pursued,  resort  to  the  artifices  of  doubling,  <fec., 


QUADRUPEDS.  27 

so  well  known  to  be  used  by  the  European  animal.  The  Ameri- 
can hare  breeds  several  times  during  the  year,  and  in  the  southern 
states  even  during  the  winter  months,  having  from  two  to  four  or 
six  at  a  litter. 

In  summer  dress  the  American  hare  is  dark  brown  on  the  upper 
part  of  its  head,  a  lighter  brown  on  the  sides,  and  of  an  ash  color 
below.  The  ears  are  wide  and  edged  with  white,  tipped  with 
brown,  and  very  dark  on  their  back  parts  ;  their  sides  approach  to 
an  ash  color.  The  inside  of  the  neck  is  slightly  ferruginous  ;  the 
belly  and  the  tail  are  small,  dark  above,  and  white  below,  having 
the  inferior  surface  turned  up.  The  hind  legs  are  covered  with 
more  white  than  dark  hairs,  and  both  fore  and  hind  feet  have  sharp 
pointed,  narrow,  and  nearly  straight  nails. 

In  winter  tke  fur  is  nearly  twice  the  length  of  what  it  is  in 
summer,  and  is  altogether,  or  very  nearly,  white.  The  weight  of 
the  animal  is  about  seven  pounds. 

This  species  is  about  fourteen  inches  in  length.  The  hind  legs 
are  ten  inches  long,  by  wliich  circumstance  it  is  most  strongly  dis- 
tinguished from  the  common  rabbit  of  Europe. 

The  use  of  coal  tar,  as  described  in  reference  to  the  rabbit,  will 
be  found  equally  efficacious  in  preserving  trees  from  the  attacks  of 
this  animal,  and  the  painting  of  gate-posts  and  palings  of  a  white 
color  at  intervals,  will,  to  a  great  degree,  scare  them  from  the 
more  valuable  crops.  Hares  are  to  be  destroyed  by  the  gun,  by 
snares,  traps,  nets,  &c. 

THE  Fox. — The  Fox  is  a  serious  pest  o£  the  farm  ;  and  though 
of  service  in  the  destruction  of  other  pests,  yet  his  depredations  far 
exceed  his  usefulness  in  the  destruction  of  rabbits,  hares,  mice, 
moles,  &c. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  foxes.  Those  which  are  mainly 
farm  depredators  are  the  Red  Fox  and  the  Gray  Fox. 

The  red  fox  is  found  throughout  North  America,  and  is  the 
species  which  frequently  has  been  thought  identical  with  the  com- 
mon fox  of  Europe,  to  which  it  bears  a  resemblance  sufficiently 
striking  to  mislead  an  incidental  observer.  But  by  the  fineness  of 
its  fur,  its  liveliness  of  color,  length  of  limbs  and  slenderness  of 
bouy,  as  well  as  the  form  of  its  skull,  it  is  obviously  distinguished. 

Red  foxes  are  yery  numerous  in  the  middle  and  southern  states 
of  the  Union,  and  are  everywhere  notorious  depredators  ori  the 
poultry-yards.  Their  haunts  are  most  commonly  in  exceedingly 
dense  thickets,  where  they  can  scarcely  be  followed,  even  ly  dogs. 


28 


THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 


Like  all  his  kindred  species,  the  red  fox  is  distinguished  by  the 
possession  of  keen  senses  and  great  sagacity  or  craftiness,  which 
enables  him  a.  most  to  bid  defiance  to  traps,  while  his  strength  and 
swiftness  of  foot  render  it  extremely  difficult  to  capture  him  in  the 
chase.  Once  fairly  roused  by  the  hounds,  this  animal  dashes  off 
with  great  speed,  and  soon  far  outstrips  pursuit,  and  did  he  not 
lose  the  advantage  of  his  celerity  by  remitting  his  efforts,  might 
soon  render  the  exertions  of  the  sportsman  nugatory.  But  the 


THE  FOX. 

persevering  hounds  again  and  again  drive  him  to  his  utmost  speed, 
and  eventually  wear  him  down,  though  not  until  a  wide  extent  of 
country  has  been  traversed,  and  huntsmen,  horses  and  dogs  have 
suffered  severely  from  fatigue. 

The  general  color  of  this  fox  when  in  full  summer  pelage,  is 
bright  ferruginous  on  the  head,  back  and  sides,  but  less  brilliant 
towards  the  tail.  Beneath  the  chin  it  is  white,  while  the  throat 
and  neck  are  a  dark  gray,  which  color  is  continued  along  the  an- 
terior part  of  the  belly  in  a  narrower  stripe  that  passes  along  the 
breast.  The  under  parts  of  the  body  towards  the  tail  are  very 
pale  red ;  and  the  anterior  parts  of  the  fore  legs  and  feet, 
as  well  as  the  fronts  of  the  inferior  part  of  the  hind  legs,  an 


QUADRUPEDS.  29 

black.  The  tail  is  very  bushy,  but  less  ferruginous  than  .he  body, 
the  hairs  being  mostly  terminated  with  black,  which  is  more  ob- 
nous  toward  the  extremity  than  at  the  origin  of  the  member,  giv- 
«ng  the  whole  a  dark  appearance.  A  few  of  the  hairs  are  lighter 
at  the  end  of  the  tail,  but  not  sufficiently  to  allow  us  to  state  that 
it  is  tipped  with  white. 

In  summer  the  fur  of  the  red  fox  is  long,  fine,  brilliant  in  color, 
and  lustrous  over  the  whole  body.  In  winter  its  length  and  dense- 
ness  is  considerably  increased.  The  red  fox  is  nearly  two  feet 
long  and  about  eighteen  inches  high  :  the  tail  is  about  sixteen 
inches  long.  The  peltry  is  of  considerable  value,  and  employed  in 
various  ways  by  the  manufacturers. 

The  gray  fox  is  very  common  thr<  ughout  this  country,  and  is 
found  more  immediately  in  the  vicinity  of  human  habitations  than 
either  of  the  other  species.  It  is  pursued  by  our  sportsmen  with 
more  pleasure  than  the  red  fox,  because  it  does  not  immediately  for- 
sake its  haunts  and  run  for  miles  in  one  direction,  but,  after 
various  doublings,  is  generally  killed  near  the  place  whence  it  first 
started. 

The  gray  fox,  like  all  the  species  we  described,  exhibits  con- 
siderable differences  of  color  at  different  ages  and  in  different  states 
of  pelage.  The  length  of  the  head  and  body  is  about  twenty-four, 
and  of  the  tail  eleven  inches.  The  general  color  of  the  animal  is 
grizzly,  becoming  gradually  darker  from  the  fore  shoulders  to  the 
posterior  parts  of  the  back,  produced  by  the  intermixture  of  ful- 
vous hairs  with  those  constituting  the  mass  of  the  pelage,  which 
are  thus  colored  ;  near  the  body  the  hair  is  rather  plumbeous,  then 
yellowish,  then  white,  and  then  uniformly  tipped  with  lustrous 
black.  The  front,  from  the  top  of  the  head  to  the-  edge  of  the 
orbiUs,  is  gray,  while  the  rest  of  the  face,  from  the  internal  angle 
of  the  eye  to  within  half  an  inch  of  the  ext  emity  of  the  snout,  is 
blackish  ;  at  the  extremity  on  each  side  of  the  granulated  black 
tip  of  the  nose  it  is  of  a  yellowish  white.  A  fine  line  of  black 
tipped  hairs  extends  upwards  and  outwards,  from  half  an  inch  be- 
low the  internal  angle  of  the  eyes  until  it  is  intersected  by  a  simi- 
lar black  line  about  half  an  inch  beyond  the  external  angle  of  the 
eye,  thus  forming  a  very  acute  triangle,  whose  base  is  on  the  side 
of  the  face.  This  blackish  gray  triangle,  joined  to  the  peculiar 
sharpness  of  the  face,  and  the  line  produced  by  the  black  whiskers 
on  the  sides  of  the  nose,  singularly  increase  the  appearance  of  sly- 
ness and  cunning  expressed  in  the  physiognomy  of  this  animal 


30  THE   PESTS  OF  THE   FARM. 

The  face  below  this  triangle  is  white,  and  the  latter  color  is  con 
tinned  semicircularly  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  throat. 

The  under  jaw  is  blackish,  this  color  extending  along  the  line  of 
the  mouth,  and  passing  about  half  an  inch  beyond  the  junction  of 
the  lips  at  the  angle.  The  inner  surface  of  the  ears  is  clothed  with 
short  light  yellowish  hair ;  their  tips  on  the  outside  are  blackish 
gray,  and  the  whole  of  the  rest  of  their  posterior  surface  is  yellow 
which  color  descends  encircling  the  neck,  and  is  the  only  color  on 
the  anterior  parts,  with  the  exception  of  a  white  spot  on  the 
breast.  The  inferior  parts  of  the  body  are  white,  tinted  slightly  in 
some  individuals  with  faint  reddish  brown.  The  tail  is  thick  and 
bushy,  and  the  fur  on  the  upper  side  is  pale  yellow,  slightly  tipped 
with  black  ;  the  under  part  4  are  rust  colored,  and  the  end  entirely 
black. 

The  most  common  method  of  destroying  foxes  is  by  hounds  and 
the  gun.  If  near  his  burrow,  to  avoid  the  dogs,  he  will  take  to 
the  earth,  and  has  then  to  be  dug  out ;  he  will  sometimes  ascend 
an  inclined  tree,  and  is  then  to  be  shot  or  the  tree  felled,  when 
the  dogs  will  dispatch  him.  He  may  be  taken  by  traps  and  snares, 
but  of  these  he  is  very  wary.  The  most  easy  means  are  poi- 
soned meats,  prepared  and  used  as  pointed  out  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  wolves. 

WOLVES. — There  are  several  varieties  of  wolves,  viz. : — The 
COMMON  -WOLF, — the  PRAIRIE  or  BARKING  WOLF, — the  DUSKY 
WOLF — and  the  BLACK  WOLF.  The  common,  prairie,  and  black 
ones  are  those  only  which  are  pests  of  the  farm.  In  all  new  set- 
tlements, and  in  the  prairie  region  of  our  country,  these  species  are 
dangerous  enemies  to  the  domestic  animals  of  the  farmer. 

THE    COMMON   WOLF. — When  the  aboriginal  Americans  first 

fave  place  to  European  adventurers,  and  the  forests  which  had 
ourished  for  ages  undisturbed,  began  to  fall  before  the  unsparing 
axe,  the  vicinity  of  the  settler's  lonely  cabin  resounded  with  the 
nightly  bowlings  of  wolves,  attracted  by  the  refuse  provision  usu- 
ally to  be  found  there,  or  by  a  disposition  to  prey  upon  the 
domestic  animals.  During  winter,  when  food  was  most  difficult  to 
be  procured,  packs  of  these  famished  and  ferocious  creatures  were 
ever  at  hand,  to  run  down  and  destroy  any  domestic  animal  found 
wandering  beyond  the  enclosures,  which  their  individual  or  com- 
bined efforts  could  overcome,  and  the  boldest  house-dog  could  not 
venture  far  from  the  door  of  his  master  without  incurring  the  risk 
oJ  being  killed  and  devoured.  The  common  wolf  was  then  to  ba 


QUADRUPEDS.  31 

found  in  considerable  numbers  throughout  a  great  extent,  if  not 
the  whole  of  North  America ;  at  present  it  is  only  known  as  a  re- 
sident of  the  remote  wooded  and  mountainous  districts  where  man 
has  just  commenced  to  fix  his  abode. 

The  common  wolf  of  America  is  considered  to  be  the  same 
species  as  the  wolf  of  Europe,  and  in  regard  to  habits  and  man- 
ners, gives  every  evidence  of  such  an  identity.  Like  all  the  wild 
animals  of  the  dog  kind,  they  unite  in  packs  to  hunt  down  animals 
which  individually  they  could  not  master,  and  during  their  sexual 
season,  engage  in  the  most  furious  combats  with  each  other  for  the 
possession  of  the  females. 

The  common  wolf  is  possessed  of  great  strength  and  fierceness, 
and  is  what  is  generally  called  a  cruel  animal,  tearing  the  throat  of 
his  victim,  drinking  its  blood,  and  rending  it  open  for  the  purpose 
of  devouring  its  entrails.  The  great  strength  of  its  jaws  enables 
the  wolf  to  cany  off  with  facility  an  animal  nearly  as  large  as 
itself,  and  makes  its  bite  exceedingly  severe  and  dangerous.  Aged 
or  wounded  animals,  as  well  as  the  hinds  and  fawns  of  the  deer, 
sheep,  lambs,  calves  and  pigs,  are  killed  by  these  wolves,  and  the 
horse  is  said  to  be  the  only  domestic  animal  which  can  resist  them 
with  success.  They  gorge  with  much  greediness  upon  all  sorts  of 
carrion,  which  they  can  discover  at  great  distances ;  and  where 
such  provision  is  to  be  obtained  in  great  plenty,  they  become  very 
fat  and  lose  their  ferocity  to  a  singular  degree. 

When  this  wolf  has  been  caught  in  a  trap,  and  is  approached 
by  man,  it  is  remarked  to  be  exceedingly  cowardly,  and  occasion- 
ally suffers  itself  to  be  beaten  without  offering  the  slightest  resist- 
ance. If  a  dog  be  set  upon  a  wolf  thus  captured,  the  assault  i? 
patiently  endured  so  long  as  his  master  is  present ;  but  as  soon  as 
the  wolf  is  freed  from  the  restraint  imposed  by  the  presence  of  his 
captor,  he  springs  upon  and  throttles  the  dog,  which,  if  not  speed- 
ily assisted,  pays  the  forfeit  of  his  presumption  and  temerity  with 
his  life.  The  voice  of  this  wolf  is  a  prolonged  and  melancholy 
howl,  which,  when  uttered  by  numerous  individuals  at  once,  is  dis- 
cordant and  frightful.  The  period  of  gestation,  <fec.,  in  this  species 
is  in  every  respect,  analogous  to  that  of  the  common  dog. 

Animals  exposed  to  so  much  suffering  from  hunger,  we  may 
readily  believe,  are  in  no  way  exclusive  in  their  preference  of  food, 
and  these  wolves  may  be  said  to  feed  on  every  creature  they  can 
master,  or  on  the  remains  of  any  animal  left  by  the  natives. 

The  common  wolf  is  about  four  feet  and  a  half  in    length, 


32  THE   PESTS   OF  THE   FARM. 


lrg  the  tail,  which  is  rather  more  than  a  foot  long.  Th<? 
height,  before,  is  two  feet  three  inches  ;  behind,  it  is  two  feet  four 
inches.  The  tail  is  bushy  and  bending  downwards,  having  upon 
it  hairs  upwards  of  five  inches  in  length. 

The  general  color  of  this  wolf  is  reddish  brown,  intermixed  with 
ferruginous  and  black  ;  but  a  great  variety  is  to  be  observed  in  the 
coloring  of  the  wolf,  as  found  in  the  northern,  middle,  and  southern 
regions,  exhibiting  gradations  from  grizzly  white  to  pure  black. 

THE  PRAIRIE  OR  BARKING  WOLF.  —  This  wolf  frequents  tha 
prairies  or  natural  meadows  of  the  west,  where  troops  or  packs 
containing  a  considerable  number  of  individuals  are  frequently  seen 
following  in  the  train  of  a  herd  of  buffalo  or  deer,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preying  on  such  as  may  die  from  disease,  or  in  conse- 
quence of  wounds  inflicted  by  the  hunters.  At  night  they  also 
approach  the  encampments  of  travelers,  whom  they  sometimes 
follow  for  the  sake  of  the  carcasses  of  animals  which  are  relin- 
quished, and  by  their  discordant  howlings,  close  to  the  tents,  effec- 
tually banish  sleep  from  those  who  are  unaccustomed  to  their 
noise.  According  to  Say's  observation  they  are  more  numerous 
than  any  of  the  other  wolves  which  are  found  in  North  America. 

The  barking  wolf  closely  resembles  the  domestic  dog  of  the  In- 
dians in  appearance,  and  is  remarkably  active  and  intelligent. 
Like  the  common  wolf,  the  individuals  of  this  species  frequently 
unite  to  run  down  deer,  or  a  buffalo  calf  which  has  been  separated 
from  the  herd,  though  it  requires  the  fullest  exercise  of  all  their 
speed,  sagacity  and  strength,  to  succeed  in  this  chase.  They  are 
very  often  exposed  to  great  distress  from  want  of  food,  and  in  this 
state  of  famine  are  under  the  necessity  of  filling  their  stomachs 
with  wild  plums,  or  other  fruits  no  less  indigestible,  in  order  to 
allay  in  some  degree  the  inordinate  sensations  of  hunger. 

This  wolf  barks  in  such  a  manner  as  to  resemble  the  domestic 
dog  very  distinctly  ;  the  first  two  or  three  notes  are  not  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  those  produced  by  a  small  tenier,  but  differs  from 
that  of  the  dog  by  adding  to  these  sounds  a  lengthened  scream. 

The  barking  wolf  is  about  three  feet  and  a-half  in  length,  of 
which  the  tail  forms  thirteen  and  a-half  inches,  exclusive  of  the 
hair  at  its  extremity.  The  ears  are  four  inches  long  from  the  top 
of  the  head,  and  the  distance  from  the  anterior  canthus  of  the  eye 
to  the  end  of  the  snout  is  three  inches  and  three-fourths. 

The  general  color  of  the  barking  wolf  is  cinerious,  or  gray  inter-  ' 
mingled  with  black,  and  dull  fulvous  or  cinnamon  above.     The 


QUADRUPEDS. 


33 


hair  is  of  a  dusky  lead  color  at  base,  of  a  dull  cinnamon  in  the 
middle  of  its  length,  and  gray  or  black  at  tip,  being  of  greater 
length  along  the  middle  of  the  back  and  other  parts  of  the  body. 
The  ears  are  erect  and  rounded  at  tip,  having  the  hair  on  the  back 
part  of  a  cinnamon  color,  and  dark  plumbeous  at  base,  while  that 
on  the  inside  is  gray. 


THE    BLACK    WOLF. 

THE  AMERICAN  BLACK  WOLF. — The  American  black  wolf,  al- 
though less  common  than  the  other  varieties,  is  considered  more 
dangerous  and  ferocious,  sometimes  making  sad  havoc  among 
sheep  and  lambs.  It  is  found  more  or  less  abundant  throughout 
the  wooded  districts  of  the  Canadas,  the  northern  states,  and  of  the 
entire  Alleghany  range,  to  their  termination  in  Georgia. 

The  length  of  this  animal  is  about  five  feet  eight  inches,  of 
which  the  tail  occupies  one  foot  eight  inches ;  the  height  at  the 
fore  shoulders  about  two  feet  three  inches,  and  the  girth  of  the 
body  about  two  feet  seven  inches.  The  general  color  of  the  body 
is  brownish-black,  somewhat  mottled  with  darker  shades;  the 
belly  much  lighter,  with  a  broad  stripe  of  black,  undefined  at  the 
edges,  running  up  the  breast ;  the  back  blackish,  very  slightly 
mottled  with  white,  caused  by  the  intermixture  of  different  hairs ; 
the  body  is  covered  with  a  soft,  thick  down,  light  gray  it  the  roots, 
3* 


34  THE   PESTS   OF   THE   FARM. 

ind  brownisl  gray  at  the  end ;  besides  this  fur,  there  is  likewise  a 
longer  hair  v  inch  is  the  general  color  of  the  animal ;  this  hair  on 
the  back  is  white  at  the  roots,  then  black,  then  pure  white,  then 
black  again  at  the  tip,  giving  a  speckled  appearance  to  the  back. 
The  tail  is  large  and  bushy  ;  the  hair  long,  loose,  and  nearly  black, 
as  also  is  the  throat  and  breast.  The  feet  and  legs  are  black  ;  the 
hair  on  the  front  of  the  legs  close,  bristly,  and  shining.  The  head 
is  black  with  the  face  covered  with  short,  close  hair ;  the  nose 
pointed,  small,  and  black ;  the  ears  short,  pointed,  and  upright. 

The  black  wolf  is  much  stronger  than  a  dog  of  the  same  size, 
and  his  mode  of  biting  is  very  different  from  that  of  a  dog.  In- 
stead of  retaining  his  hold,  like  a  dog,  when  he  seizes  his  enemy, 
he  bites  by  repeated  snaps,  given,  however,  with  great  force,  often 
L'icerating  the  flesh  a  foot  or  more  to  each  jerk.  Like  all  carnivo- 
rous animals,  his  thirst  for  blood  is  irresistible,  and  he  often  kills 
his  victim  without  devouring  the  carcass,  drinking  the  blood,  the 
only  part  agreeable  to  his  palate.  When  pressed  with  hunger,  he 
destroys  every  other  creature  he  can  master,  and  it  is  believed 
that,  during  the  year,  he  consumes  at  least  thirty  times  his  own 
weight  of  animal  food,  which,  in  cultivated  countries,  renders  his 
injurious  character  more  apparent,  from  the  large  number  of  do- 
mestic animals  he  necessarily  must  slay.  In  winter,  when  the 
ground  is  covered  with  snow,  and  he  finds  his  prey  to  be  scarce  iu 
his  natural  haunts,  he  becomes  exceedingly  bold,  intrudes  into  the 
sheep-folds  and  pig-sties,  and  even  into  villages  or  populous  towns, 
in  quest  of  food. 

The  ordinary  method  of  capturing  wolves  is  in  winter,  by  means 
of  a  steel  trap.  It  has  been  found,  however,  that  the  most  success- 
ful method  of  destroying  them  is,  to  drug  small  sausages  with 
strychnine,  or  nux  vomica,  and  hang  them  on  the  boughs  of  trees, 
at  such  a  height,  that  the  wolf  must  leap  ta  obtain  them.  Under 
these  circumstances  the  animal  swallows  the  bait  at  once,  and  has 
not  time  to  find  out  that  it  contains  any  suspicious  admixture, 
which  he  often  does,  if  the  poison  be  applied  to  the  carcasses  of 
sheep,  horses,  &c.  Another  mode  of  poisoning  them  is  this  :  The 
kernels  of  nux  vomica  are  grated  or  powdered,  then  mixed  up  with 
three  or  four  times  their  bulk  of  fat  or  grease,  and  honey  (wolves 
are  very  fond  of  the  latter),  and  made  into  balls  about  as  large  as 
a  hen's  egg.  These  are  placed  in  the  woods,  covered  with  a  piece 
of  flesh  or  tripe,  and  some  offal  is  hung  on  a  tree  near  tho  spot,  to 


QUADRUPEDS.  35 

attract  the  wolves  by  its  scent.  The  poison  once  taken  is  sure  to 
prove  fatal,  before  the  animals  can  proceed  many  rods. 

The  common  and  the  black  wolf  are  usually  destroyed  in  two 
ways.  When  annoyed  by  them  the  farmers  frequently  unite,  and 
by  a  general  battue  destroy  them.  This  is  effected,  by  forming 
about  the  observed  retreats  of  the  wolf,  a  large  circle  of  two  or 
three  miles  in  diameter.  The  hunters  gradually  close  in  on  the 
point  of  hiding,  and  hedge  the  wolf  in,  when  he  is  easily  de- 
stroyed. 

A  frequent  means  of  destruction  is  a  deep  pit.  This  is  dug  so 
deep  as  to  prevent  the  wolf  from  jumping  out.  once  he  is  in.  The 
pit  is  baited  with  a  dead  sheep  or  animal  or  can-ion.  The  wolf 
jumps  down  for  his  prey,  gorges  himself,  and  then  seeks  to 
escape,  but  in  vain.  His  howlings  soon  inform  the  farmer  or 
hunter  of  his  imprisonment,  when  the  pit  is  visited  and  the  pri- 
soner killed. 

The  prairie  wolf  is  too  sagacious  to  be  caught  by  traps.  He 
may  be  poisoned  like  the  other  varieties.  He  is  frequently  shot. 
Occupying  the  open  prairie  he  is  good  game  for  the  grayhound, 
and  is  often  chased  by  him.  Once  the  grayhound  sights  him,  if  in 
the  open  prairie,  the  wolf  must  be  near  the  cover  of  a  wood,  or  he 
has  not  the  least  chance  of  an  escape.  Being  small,  a  brace  of 
grayhounds  soon  dispatch  him.  He  may  be  taken  in  pits,  but  is 
very  shy  of  them. 

THE  WOODCHUCK. — This  animal  is  the  arctomys  monax  or  mar- 
mot. Among  the  country  people  it  bears  the  name  of  vwodchuck 
and  ground-hog,  the  latter  being  expressive  of  its  habits  of  bur- 
rowing and  peculiar  voracity. 

The  woodchuck  is  the  cause  of  great  injury,  especially  to  the 
farmers  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  clover,  as  their  numbers  be- 
come very  considerable,  and  the  quantity  of  herbage  they  consume 
is  really  surprising.  They  are  more  capable  of  doing  mischief 
from  the  circumstance  of  their  extreme  vigilance  and  acute  sense 
of  hearing,  as  well  as  from  the  security  afforded  them  by  their  ex- 
tensive subterranean  dwellings. 

When  about  to  make  an  inroad  upon  a  clover-field,  all  the 
woodchucks  resident  in  the  vicinity  quietly  and  cautiously  steal 
toward  the  spot,  being  favored  in  their  march  by  their  gray  color, 
which  is  not  easily  distinguished.  While  the  main  body  are 
actively  engaged  in  cropping  the  clover-heads  and  gorging  theii 
ample  cheek-pouches,  one  or  more  individuals  remain  at  some  dis 


36  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

tancc  in  the  rear  as  sentinels.  These  watchmen  sit  erect,  with 
their  fore-paws  held  close  to  their  breast,  and  their  heads  slightly 
inclined  to  catch  every  sound  which  may  move  the  air.  Their  ex- 
treme sensibility  of  ear  enables  them  to  distinguish  the  approach 
of  an  enemy  long  before  he  is  sufficiently  near  to  be  dangerous, 
and  the  instant  the  sentinel  takes  alarm  he  gives  a  clear  shrill 
whistle,  which  immediately  disperses  the  troop  in  every  direction, 
and  they  speedily  take  refuge  in  their  deepest  caves.  The  time  at 
which  such  incursions  are  made  is  generally  about  mid-day,  when 


THE  WOODCHUCK. 

tiey  are  less  liable  to  be  interrupted  than  at  any  other  period, 
either  by  human  or  brute  enemies. 

The  habitations  of  the  woodchuck  are  formed  by  burrowing 
into  banks,  the  sides  of  hills,  or  other  similar  situations,  by  which 
the  access  of  water  is  prevented.  In  forming  the  burrow,  where 
the  ground  is  soft,  the  fore-paws  are  the  principal  agents;  the 
strength  of  the  animal's  fore  limbs  is  very  great.  Where  the  soil 
is  hard  and  compact,  the  long  cutting  teeth  are  very  freely  and  effi- 
ciently employee!,  and  we  have  been  surprised  to  see  large  stones 
and  lumps  of  hardened  clay  dug  out  in  this  way. 

The  burrows  extend  to  great  distances  under  ground,  and  ter- 
minate in  various  chambers,  according  to  the  number  of  inhabit- 
ants. In  these,  very  comfortable  beds  are  made  by  the  wood- 
chuck,  of  dry  leaves,  grass,  or  any  soft  dry  rubbish  to  be  collected. 
It  is  really  surprising  to  see  the  vast  quantity  of  such  material  an 
individual  will  cram  into  his  mouth  to  carry  off  for  this  purpose. 
He  firsts  grasps  with  the  teeth  as  much  as  he  possibly  can  ;  then 
sitting  erect,  with  both  fore-paws  he  stuffs  the  mass  projecting  on 
each  side  deeper  into  the  mouth,  and  having  arranged  it  satisfac- 
torily, takes  up  successive  portions,  which  are  treated  in  like  man- 


QUADRUPEDS.  37 

ner ;  J  uring  the  whole  time  the  head  is  moved  up  and  down  to 
aid  in  filling  the  mouth  to  the  very  utmost.  This  is  repeated  until 
every  fragment  at  hand  is  collected,  and  the  whole  transferred  to 
the  sleeping  apartment,  into  which  the  woodchuck  retires  towards 
the  decline  of  the  day,  and  remains  there  until  the  morning  is  far 
advanced.  At  some  seasons  of  the  year  the  woodchuck  is  seen 
out  on  moonlight  nights  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  bur- 
row, either  in  search  of  better  pasture  or  looking  for  a  mate ;  on 
such  occasions,  when  attacked  by  a  dog,  the  woodchuck  makes 
battle,  and  when  the  individual  is  full-grown,  his  bite  is  very  se- 
vere. The  teeth  of  the  dog  give  him  vast  superiority  in  the  com- 
bat, as  when  once  he  seizes,  he  is  sure  of  the  hold  until  the  parts 
bitten  are  torn  through,  while  the  woodchuck  can  merely  pinch 
his  foreteeth  together,  and  must  renew  his  attempts  very  frequent- 
ly. The  fight  is  also  soon  ended  by  the  dog  seizing  the  wood- 
chuck  by  the  small  of  the  back,  and  crushing  the  spine  so  as  to 
disable  his  antagonist  effectually. 

The  woodchuck  is  to  be  destroyed  by  dogs.  The  most  of  farm 
dogs  are  very  fond  of  pursuing  them.  If  the  woodchuck  escape 
to  his  hole,  the  dog  will  readily  dig  him  out.  But  a  speedier  way 
is  to  smoke  his  hole,  and  drive  him  out,  when  the  dog  readily 
catches  and  destroys  him.  He  is  easily  shot,  and  may  be  handily 
taken  in  traps. 

THE  RACCOON. — There  are  few  parts  of  the  American  continent 
in  which  the  Racoon  has  not,  at  some  period,  been  found  native, 
from  the  borders  of  Nootka  Sound  to  the  forests  of  Mexico,  and 
still  more  southern  regions. 

Were  we  to  form  an  opinion  of  this  animal's  character  solely 
from  external  appearances,  the  mingled  expression  of  sagacity  and 
innocence  exhibited  in  his  aspect,  his  personal  neatness  and  gentle 
movements,  might  all  incline  us  to  believe  that  he  possessed  a 
guileless  and  placable  disposition.  But  in  this,  as  in  most  other 
cases,  wh«ve  judgments  are  formed  without  sufficient  examination, 
we  should  be  in  error,  and  find,  that  to  the  capricious  mischievous- 
ness  of  the  monkey,  the  racoon  adds  a  blood-thirsty  and  vindictive 
spirit,  peculiarly  his  own.  In  the  wild  state,  this  sanguinary  appe- 
tite frequently  leads  to  his  own  destruction,  which  his  nocturnal 
habits  might  otherwise  avert ;  but  as  he  slaughters  the  tenants  of 
the  poultry-yard  with  indiscriminate  ferocity,  the  vengeance  of  the 
plundered  farmer  speedily  retaliates  on  him  the  death  so  liberally 
dealt  among  the  feathered  victims.  This  destructive  propensity  ^ 


88  THE   PESTS  OF  THE   FARM. 

the  raccoou  is  more  remarkable,  when  we  observe  that  his  teeth  are 
not  unsuited  for  eating  fruits.  When  he  destroys  wild  or  domes- 
ticated birds,  he  puts  to  death  a  great  number  without  consuming 
any  part  of  them,  except  the  head,  or  the  blood  which  is  sucked 
from  the  neck. 

Being  peculiarly  fond  of  sweet  substances,  the  raccoon  is  occa- 
sionally very  destructive  to  plantations  of  sugar  cane,  and  of 
Indian  corn.  While  the  ear  of  the  Indian  corn  is  still  young,  soft 
and  tender,  "  in  the  milk,"  it  is  very  sweet,  and  is  then  eagerly 
sought  by  the  raccoons  ;  troops  of  them  frequently  enter  fields  of 
maize,  and  in  one  night  commit  extensive  depreciations,  both  by 
the  quantity  of  grain  they  consume,  and  from  the  number  of  stalks 
they  break  down  by  their  weight. 

The  raccoon  is  an  excellent  climber,  and  his  strong  sharp  claws 
effectually  secure  him  from  being  shaken  off  the  branches  of  trees. 
In  fact,  so  tenaciously  does  this  animal  hold  to  any  surface  upon 
which  it  can  make  an  impression  with  its  claws,  that  it  requires  a 
considerable  exertion  of  a  man's  strength  to  drag  him  off ;  and  as 
long  as  even  a  single  foot  remains  attached,  he  continues  to  cling 
with  great  force. 

The  conical  form  of  the  head,  and  the  very  pointed  and  flexible 
character  of  the  muzzle  or  snout,  are  of  great  importance  in  aiding 
the  raccoon  to  examine  every  vacuity  and  crevice  to  which  he 
gains  access ;  nor  does  he  neglect  any  opportunity  of  using  his 
natural  advantages,  but  explores  every  nook  and  cranny,  with  the 
most  persevering  diligence  and  attention,  greedily  feeding  on  spi- 
ders, worms,  or  other  insects  which  are  discovered  by  the  scrutiny. 
Where  the  opening  is  too  small  to  give  admittance  to  his  nose,  he 
employs  his  fore-paws,  and  shifts  his  position  or  turns  his  paws 
sidewise,  in  order  to  facilitate  their  introduction  and  effect  his  pur- 
pose. This  disposition  to  feed  on  the  grubs  or  lame  of  insects 
must  render  this  animal  of  considerable  utility  in  forest  lands,  in 
consequence  of  the  great  numbers  of  injurious  and  destructive  in- 
sects he  consumes.  He  is  also  said  to  catch  frogs  with  consider- 
able address,  by  slily  creeping  up,  and  then  springing  on  them,  so 
as  to  grasp  them  with  both  paws. 

The  size  of  the  raccoon  varies  with  the  age  and  sex  of  the  indi- 
vidual. A  full  grown  male  may  be  stated  to  have  the  body  a 
foot,  or  a  few  inches  more,  in  length  ;  the  highest  part  of  the  back 
is  about  a  foot  from  the  ground,  while  the  highest  part  of  the 
shoulder  is  ten  inches  The  head  is  about  five,  and  the  tail  rather 


QUADKUPEDS.  39 

more  than  eight  inches  long.  The  female  is  larger  than  the  male 
in  every  respect,  at  least  such  is  the  fact  in  relation  to  the  raccoons 
now  in  my  possession,  which,  however,  have  not  yet  attained  their 
full  growth.  They  are  of  the  same  age,  and  the  female  is  strongly 
distinguished  from  the  male  by  the  black  markings  on  all  parts  01 
the  body  being  more  purely  black,  and  the  fur  and  hair  longer, 
thicker,  and  more  glossy  than  that  of  the  male ;  these  peculiarities, 
in  addition  to  her  greater  size,  uniformly  lead  strangers  to  suppose 
this  individual  to  be  the  male,  instead  of  the  female.  The  pelage 
of  the  male  is  not  only  less  purely  black  at  the  extremities  of  the 
hairs,  but  there  is  a  much  greater  intermixture  of  fawn-colored 
hair  than  in  the  female,  giving  more  of  a  rusty  appearance  to  the 
whole  surface  of  his  body.  A  young  raccoon  of  thirty  days  old 
is  about  the  size  of  a  common  cat  of  a  year  old,  though  the  greater 
length  of  its  legs  and  the  bushiness  of  its  pelage,  make  it  at  first 
sight  appear  much  larger. 

The  general  color  of  the  body  is  a  blackish  gray,  which  is  paler 
on  the  under  part  of  the  body,  and  has  over  considerable  part  of 
the  neck,  back  and  sides,  some  fawn  or  light  rust-colored  hair  in- 
termixed. The  general  gray  color  is  owing  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  hairs  are  alternately  ringed  with  black  and  dingy 
white.  The  tail  is  very  thickly  covered  with  hair,  and  is  marked 
by  five  or  six  black  rings  round  it,  on  a  yellowish  white  ground. 

The  head,  which  is  about  five  inches  long,  is  very  triangular, 
and  from  its  pointed  snout  reminds  us  of  the  aspect  of  the  fox  : 
the  snout  terminates  in  a  smooth  and  shining  black  membrane, 
through  which  the  nostrils  open,  having  the  slit  to  rise  slightly  at 
the  sides.  The  nose  is  prolonged  considerably  beyond  the  upper 
jaw,  and  this,  together  with  its  great  flexibility,  gives  the  animal 
great  advantages  in  exploring  little  crevices  and  crannies  for  in- 
sects, &c.  The  pupils  of  the  eyes  are  round  ;  the  ears  are  oval,  or 
rather  elliptic,  and  of  a  yellowish  white  color  on  their  extremities 
and  anterior  edges.  The  face  is  whitish,  in  front,  but  there  is  a 
black  patch  surrounding  the  eye,  that  descends  entirely  to  the 
lower  jaw,  over  the  posterior  part  of  which  it  is  diffused,  and  a 
black  line  running  from  the  top  of  the  head  down  the  middle 
of  the  face,  ending  below  the  eyes.  The  rest  of  the  hair  between 
the  eyes,  the  ears,  and  eye-brows,  is  almost  entirely  white,  and  di- 
rected downwards.  The  hair  on  the  muzzle  is  usually  very  short ; 
on  the  feet  also,  and  on  one-half  of  the  legs  ;  the  short  hair  of  the 


40  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

feet  and  legs  is  of  a  dirty  whitish  color.     The  *  .^  Lie 

upper  lip  are  long  and  strong. 

All  the  feet  have  five  toes  each,  terminated  t  j  strong  curved 
and  pointed  claws  ;  and  each  foot  is  furnished  with  five  thick  and 
very  elastic  tubercles  beneath.  The  first  toe  or  thumb  of  the  fore- 
foot is  the  shortest  of  all ;  the  little  or  external  finger  is  next  in 
length,  and  then  the  fore-finger  ;  the  remaining  two  are  equal. 
The  first  tubercle,  which  is  a  very  strong  one,  is  situated  near  the 
wrist ;  the  second  is  at  the  base  of  the  little  finger ;  the  third  at 
the  root  of  the  inner  finger  or  thumb ;  the  fourth  opposite  the 
second  digit,  and  the  fifth  opposite  the  two  longest.  The  hind  feet 
are  throughout  similar,  except  that  the  first  tubercle  is  farther  dis- 
tant from  the  heel. 

The  pelage  of  the  raccoon  is  subject  to  considerable  variations 
of  color  at  different  periods  of  life,  and  in  different  individuals. 
The  rings  on  the  tail  and  the  patches  around  the  eyes  are,  how- 
ever, uniform  and  constant.  The  tail  of  the  raccoon  is  not  affected 
by  the  coldest  weather;  hence  this  quadruped  is  never  known  to 
gnaw  his  tail,  as  has  been  observed  of  animals  closely  allied  to  it 
in  configuration  and  habits. 

As  the  habits  of  the  raccoon  are  nocturnal  he  is  not  easily  shot* 
He  may  readily  be  taken  by  snares  and  traps.  He  is  frequentl  r 
hunted  at  night  in  August  and  September,  during  the  period  of 
green  corn,  with  dogs.  He  escapes  to  a  tree,  which  is  cut  down, 
and  the  dogs  seize  him  as  he  comes  to  the  ground. 

THE  BLACK  BEAR. — There  are  three  varieties  of  the  Bear 
in  America,  viz. :  the  American  or  Black  Bear,  the  Grizzly  Bear, 
and  the  Polar  Bear.  The  Black  Bear  alone  is  a  pest  of  the  farm. 

This  bear  is  found  throughout  North  America,  from  the  shores 
of  the  Arctic  Sea  to  its  most  southern  extremity. 

The  black  bear,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  is  not  remarkably 
ferocious,  nor  is  he  in  the  habit  of  attacking  man  without  provoca- 
tion. But  when  wounded,  he  turns  on  the  aggressor  with  great 
fury,  and  defends  himself  desperately.  This  disposition  is  more 
fully  manifested  during  the  coupling  season,  because  the  males  are 
then  highly  excited,  and  are  not  so  inert  and  clumsy  as  in  the 
autumn,  when  they  are  exceedingly  fat. 

When  the  winters  are  severe  at  the  north,  and  they  find  a  diffi- 
culty of  procuring  food,  they  travel  to  the  southern  regions  in 
considerable  bodies. 

The  sight  and  hearing  appear  to  be  the  most  acute  of  the 


QUADRUPEDS.  41 

Bcnses  in  this  bear.  Although  he  kills  many  small  animals,  he 
does  not  follow  them  by  the  smell.  When  he  walks,  his  gait  is 
heavy  and  apparently  awkward,  and  when  running  is  not  much 
less  so,  but  his  strength  of  body  enables  him  to  move  with 
considerable  celerity,  and  for  a  long  time. 

The  females  bring  forth  their  young  in  the  winter  time,  and  ex- 
hibit for  them  a  degree  of  attachment  which  nothing  can  surpass. 
They  usually  have  two  cubs,  which  are  suckled  until  they  are  well 
grown.  The  fondness  existing  between  the  mother  and  cubs 
seems  to  be  mutual,  and  no  danger  can  separate  her  from  them, 
nor  anything,  short  of  death  itself,  induce  her  to  forsake  them. 


THE  BEAR. 

Black  bears  are  still  numerous  in  the  wooded  and  thinly  settled 
parts  of  the  States  of  the  Union,  and  where  their  favorite  food  is 
plenteous  they  grow  to  a  great  size,  and  afford  a  large  quantity 
of  oil. 

The  food  of  this  animal  is  principally  grapes,  plums,  whortle- 
berries, persimmons,  bramble  and  other  berries ;  they  are  also  par- 
ticularly fond  of  the  acorns  of  the  live  oak.  They  are  also  very 
fond  of  the  different  kinds  of  nuts  ant.  esculent  roots,  and  often 
ramble  to  great  distances  from  their  dens  in  search  of  whortleber- 
ries, mulberries,  and  indeed  all  sweet  flavored  and  spicy  fruits  : 
birds,  small  quadrupeds,  insects,  and  eggs,  are  also  devoured  by 


4:2  THE  PESTS   OF  THE   FAEM. 

them  whenever  they  can  be  obtained.  They  are  occasionally  very 
injurious  to  the  frontier  settlers,  by  their  incursions  in  search  of 
potatoes  and  young  corn,  both  of  which  are  favorite  articles  of 
food ;  their  daws  enable  them  to  do  great  mischief  in  potato 
grounds,  as  they  can  dig  up  a  large  number  in  a  very  short  time, 
and  where  the  bears  are  numerous  their  ravages  are  occasionally 
very  extensive. 

In  the  north,  the  flesh  of  the  black  bear  is  fittest  for  the  table 
after  the  middle  of  July,  when  the  berries  begin  to  ripen,  though 
some  berries  impart  a  very  disagreeable  flavor  to  their  flesh.  They 
remain  in  good  condition  until  the  following  January  or  February ; 
late  in  the  spring  they  are  much  emaciated,  and  their  flesh  is  dry 
and  disagreeable  in  consequence  of  their  long  fasting  through  the 
season  of  their  torpidity.  Their  flesh  is  also  rendered  rank  and 
disagreeable  by  feeding  on  herring  spawn,  which  they  seek  and 
devour  with  greediness,  whenever  it  is  to  be  obtained.  The  south- 
ern Indians  kill  great  numbers  of  these  bears  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year,  but  no  inducement  can  be  offered  to  prevent  them  from 
singeing  off  the  hair  of  all  that  are  in  good  condition  for  eating, 
as  the  flesh  of  the  bear  is  as  much  spoiled  by  skinning  as  pork 
would  be ;  the  skins  these  people  bring  the  traders  are  conse- 
quently only  such  as  are  obtained  from  bears  that  are  too  poor  to 
be  eaten. 

The  black  bear  is  in  fact  very  indiscriminate  in  his  feeding  ;  and 
though  suited  by  nature  for  the  almost  exclusive  consumption  of 
vegetable  food,  yet  refuses  scarcely  anything  when  pressed  by  hun- 
ger. He  is  moreover  voracious  as  well  as  indiscriminate  in  satisfy- 
ing his  appetite,  and  frequently  gorges  until  his  stomach  loathes 
and  rejects  its  contents.  He  seeks,  with  great  assiduity,  for  the 
larvae  or  grub-worms  of  various  insects,  and  exerts  a  surprising  de- 
gree of  strength  in  turning  over  large  trunks  of  fallen  trees, 
which,  whenever  sufficiently  decayed  to  admit  of  it,  he  tears  to 
pieces  in  search  of  worms. 

The  usual  residence  of  the  black  bear  is  in  the  most  remote  and 
secluded  parts  of  the  forest,  where  his  den  is  either  in  the  hollow 
of  some  decayed  tree,  or  in  a  cavern  formed  among  the  rocks. 
To  this  place  he  retires  when  his  hunger  is  appeased,  and  in  tho 
winter  he  lies  coiled  up  there  during  the  long  period  of  his  torpid- 
ity The  female  of  the  black  bear,  during  the  period  of  gesta- 
tion, which  commences  in  the  month  of  October,  and  continues  foi 


QUADRUPEDS.  43 

about  one  hundred  and  twelve  days,  leads  a  retired  and  concealed 
life. 

In  the  northern  parts  of  this  continent,  the  subterraneous  re- 
treats of  the  black  bear  may  be  readily  discovered  by  the  mist 
which  uniformly  hangs  about  the  entrance  of  the  den,  as  the  ani- 
mal's heat  and  breathing  prevent  the  mouth  of  the  cave  from 
being  entirely  closed,  however  deep  the  snow  may  be.  As  the 
black  bear  usually  retires  to  his  winter  quarters  before  any  quan- 
tity of  snow  has  fallen,  and  does  not  again  venture  abroad,  if  un- 
disturbed, until  the  end  of  March  or  beginning  of  April,  he  must 
consequently  spend  at  least  four  months  in  a  state  of  torpidity, 
and  without  obtaining  food.  It  is  therefore  not  surprising  that, 
although  the  bear  goes  into  his  winter  quarters  in  a  state  of  ex- 
cessive fatness,  he  should  come  out  in  the  spring  of  the  year  ex- 
tremely emaciated. 

The  northern  Indians  occasionally  destroy  the  bear  by  blocking 
up  the  mouth  of  the  cave  with  logs  of  wood,  and  then  breaking 
open  the  top  of  it,  kill  the  animal  with  a  spear  or  gun.  Some- 
times they  throw  a  noose  round  his  neck,  draw  him  up  to  the  top 
of  the  hole,  and  kill  him  with  a  hatchet. 

The  black  bear  is  occasionally  captured  in  large  and  strong  steel 
traps,  well  secured  by  a  chain  to  a  neighboring  tree,  and  laid  in  a 
path  over  which  a  freshly-killed  carcass  has  been  drawn  along, — 
or  he  is  taken  in  a  noose  suspended  from  a  strong  sapling.  A 
common  mode  of  hunting  this  animal  is  to  follow  him  with  two  or 
three  well-trained  dogs.  When  he  finds  that  he  is  pursued,  he 
generally  pushes  directly  forward  for  eight  or  ten  miles,  or  farther, 
if  not  overtaken ;  as  the  dogs  come  up  with  him  their  repeated  at- 
tacks cause  him  to  turn  for  the  purpose  of  striking  at  them,  and  if 
they  do  not  dexterously  avoid  his  blows  they  will  be  killed,  as  he 
strikes  with  very  great  force.  To  avoid  the  vexation  produced  by 
the  dogs,  he  mounts  a  tree,  ascending  for  twenty  or  thirty  feet,  but 
is  allowed  very  little  rest,  for  the  hunter  now  approaching,  ho 
throws  himself  to  the  earth,  and  hurries  onwards,  being  still  pur- 
sued and  worried  by  the  dogs.  Again  he  is  obliged  to  take  refuge 
in  a  tree,  and  sometimes  climbs  as  near  as  possible  to  the  top,  en- 
deavoring to  conceal  himself  among  the  foliage.  The  hunter  now 
strikes  against  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  as  if  engaged  in  cutting  it 
down ;  the  poor  bear  soon  betrays  his  hiding-place,  and  slipping 
to  the  end  of  the  longest  branch,  gathers  his  body  up,  and  drops 
from  a  vast  height  to  the  ground,  ^hence  he  often  appears  to  re- 


4:4  THE  PESTS   OF  THE  FARM. 

bound  for  several  feet,  and  then  runs  off  as  actively  as  he  can. 
At  length,  worn  out  by  frequently  repeated  exertions  to  escape,  ha 
is  finally  shot,  while  attempting  to  screen  himself  by  aid  of  the 
trunk  of  a  tree,  or  while  employed  in  resisting  the  attacks  of  the 
dogs. 

Among  other  modes  of  killing  the  black  bear  the  Indians  em- 
ploy a  trap  composed  of  logs,  which,  when  the  animal  attempts  to 
remove  the  bait,  either  falls  on  his  body  and  kills  kim  outright,  or 
secures  him  until  he  is  put  to  death  by  the  proprietor  of  the  snare. 

The  black  bear,  like  all  the  species  of  this  genus,  is  very  tena- 
cious of  life,  and  seldom  falls  unless  shot  through  the  brain  or 
heart.  An  experienced  hunter  never  advances  on  a  bear  that  has 
fallen,  without  first  stopping  to  load  his  rifle,  as  the  beast  fre- 
quently recovers  to  a  considerable  degree,  and  would  then  be  a 
most  dangerous  adversary.  The  skull  of  the  bear  appears  actually 
to  be  almost  impenetrable,  and  a  rifle  ball,  fired  at  a  distance  of 
ninety-six  yards,  has-  been  flattened  against  it,  without  appearing 
to  do  any  material  injury  to  the  bone.  The  best  place  to  direct 
blows  against  the  bear  is  upon  his  snout ;  when  struck  elsewhere, 
his  dense,  woolly  coat,  thick  hide  and  robust  muscles,  render  ma- 
nual violence  almost  entirely  unavailing. 

When  the  bear  is  merely  wounded,  it  is  very  dangerous  to  at- 
tempt to  kill  him  with  such  a  weapon  as  a  knife  or  tomahawk,  01 
indeed  anything  which  may  bring  one  within  his  reach.  In  this 
way  hunters  and  others  have  paid  very  dearly  for  their  rashness, 
and  barely  escaped  with  their  lives. 

The  black  bear,  in  common  with  other  species  of  this  genus,  en- 
deavors to  suffocate  an  adversary  by  violently  hugging  and  compress- 
ing its  chest.  A  man  might  end  such  a  struggle  in  a  few  instants, 
if  one  hand  be  sufficiently  at  liberty  to  grasp  the  throat  of  the 
animal  with  the  thumb  and  fingers,  externally,  just  at  the  root  of 
the  tongue,  as  a  slight  degree  of  compression  there  will  generally 
suffice  to  produce  a  spasm  of  the  glottis,  that  will  soon  suffocate  it 
beyond  the  power  of  offering  resistance  or  doing  injury. 

The  black  bear  differs  from  other  species  of  the  genus  by  having 
the  nose  and  forehead  nearly  on  the  same  line,  though  the  fore- 
head is  slightly  prominent.  The  palms  of  the  hands  and  soles  01 
the  feet  are  very  short,  and  the  whole  body  is  covered  with  long, 
shining,  straight  black  hair,  which  is  by  no  means  harsh  to  the 
touch.  The  sides  of  the  face  are  marked  with  fawn  color,  and  a 
small  spot  of  the  same  exists  in  some  individuals  in  front  of  the 


QUADRUPEDS.  45 

eye ;  others  have  the  muzzle  of  a  clear  light  yellow,  with  a  white 
line  commencing  on  the  root  of  the  nose  and  reaching  to  each  side 
of  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  This  continues  over  the  cheek  to  a 
large  white  space,  mixed  with  a  slight  fawn  color,  covering  the 
whole  of  the  throat,  whence  a  narrow  line  descends  upon  the 
breast. 


THE    SQUIRREL. 

SQUIRRELS. — There  are  several  varieties  of  Squirrels. 

The  Fox  Squirrel  is  common  in  the  southern  States,  and  is  not 
troublesome. 

The  Cat  Squirrel  is  found  in  great  abundance  throughout  the 
oak  and  chesnut  forests  of  this  country,  and  is  not  to  any  extent  a 
depredator. 

The  Black  Squirrel  is  very  common,  and  at  times  very  destruc- 
tive in  the  Indian  corn  fields.  The  black  squirrel,  in  summer,  is 
rather  gray  on  the  back  and  sides,  though  the  whole  color  of  the 
body  is  black,  with  some  gray  interspersed,  and  of  a  reddish 
brown  on  the  under  parts.  In  winter  the  color  is  a  pure  black  all 
over  the  body. 

The  Common  Gray  Squirrel. — This  species,    still    exceedingly 


46  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

common  throughout  the  United  States,  was  once  so  excessively 
multiplied  as  to  be  a  scourge  to  the  inhabitants,  not  only  consum- 
ing their  grain,  but  exhausting  the  public  treasury  by  the  amount 
of  premiums  given  for  their  destruction. 

The  gray  squirrel  prefers  the  oak,  hickory  and  chesnut  woods, 
where  it  finds  a  copious  supply  of  nuts  and  mast,  of  which  it  pro- 
vides large  hoards  for  the  winter.  Their  nests  are  placed  chiefly 
in  tall  oak  trees  at  the  forks  of  the  branches  ;  these  nests  are  very 
comfortable,  being  thickly  covered  and  lined  with  dried  leaves. 
During  cold  weather  the  squirrels  seldom  leave  these  snug  re- 
treats, except  for  the  purpose  of  visiting  their  store-houses,  and 
obtaining  a  supply  of  provisions.  It  has  been  observed  that  the 
approach  of  uncommonly  cold  weather  is  foretold  when  these 
squirrels  are  seen  out  in  unusual  numbers,  gathering  a  larger  stock 
of  provisions,  lest  their  magazines  should  tail.  This,  however,  is 
not  an  infallible  sign,  at  least  in  vicinities  where  many  hogs  are  al- 
lowed to  roam  at  large,  as  these  keen-nosed  brutes  are  very  expert 
at  discovering  the  winter  hoards  of  the  squirrel,  which  they  imme- 
diately appropriate  to  their  own  use. 

If  the  gray  squirrels  confined  themselves  to  the  diet  afforded  by 
the  forest  trees,  the  farmers  would  profit  considerably  thereby. 
But,  having  once  tasted  the  sweetness  of  Indian  corn  and  other 
cultivated  grains,  they  leave  acorns  and  such  coarse  fare  to  the 
hogs,  while  they  invade  the  corn  fields,  and  carry  off  and  destroy 
a  very  large  quantity.  This  species  is  remarkable  among  all  our 
squirrels  for  its  beauty  and  activity. 

The  gray  squirrel  varies  considerably  in  color,  but  is  most  com- 
monly of  a  fine  bluish  gray,  mingled  with  a  slight  golden  hue. 
This  golden  color  is  especially  obvious  on  the  head,  along  the  sides, 
where  the  white  hair  of  the  belly  approaches  the  gray  of  the  sides, 
and  on  the  anterior  part  01  the  fore  and  superior  part  of  the  hind 
feet,  where  it  is  very  rich  and  deep.  This  mark  on  the  hind  feet 
is  very  permanent,  and  evident  even  in  those  varieties  which  differ 
most  from  the  common  color.  There  is  one  specimen  in  the  Phi- 
ladelphia Museum  of  a  light  brownish  red  on  all  the  superior  parts 
of  the  body. 

The  Common  Red  Squirrel,  or  Hudson's  Bay  Squirrel  of 
Naturalists. — This  beautiful  species  is  very  common  in  the  north- 
ern and  western  parts  of  this  country,  and,  where  seldom  dis- 
turbed, are  so  fearless  as  to  allow  themselves  to  be  approached 
almost  within  reach. 


QUADRUPEDS.  47 

The  comir.jn  red  squirrel  is,  perhaps,  more  remarkable  for  its 
neatness  and  beauty  than  any  of  its  kindred  species,  which,  in 
habits  and  manners,  it  closely  resembles.  It  is  between  seven  and 
eight  inches  long,  having  a  tail  five  inches  in  length.  Its  whiskers 
are  very  long  and  black ;  the  superior  parts  of  the  body  are  of  a 
reddish  brown  color,  varying  in  intensity,  and  shaded  with  black. 
On  the  inferior  parts  the  general  color  is  a  tarnished  or  yellowish 
white ;  the  under  part  of  the  head  and  front  of  the  fore  limbs  are 
reddish  brown,  like  the  back ;  the  insides  of  the  thighs  are 
colored  like  the  belly ;  on  each  flank  there  is  a  distinctly  marked 
black  line,  separating  the  colors  of  the  back  and  belly.  The  tail  is 
of  a  reddish  brown  color,  and  is  very  beautiful. 

The  red  squirrel  is  a  great  pest  in  orchards.  He  will  frequently 
destroy  a  hundred  pears  in  a  day  to  get  the  seeds,  which  alone 
he  eats. 

The  Ground  Squirrel  (commonfy  called  the  Chipmunk, 
Ilacky  or  Hackee,  Ground,  or  Striped  Squirrel). — Few  persons 
have  traveled  without  becoming  acquainted  with  this  pretty  ani- 
mal, which,  though  very  different  in  its  general  appearance  from 
its  kindred  tenanting  the  lofty  forest-trees,  still  approaches  to  them 
so  closely  in  personal  beauty  and  activity,  as  always  to  command 
the  attention  of  the  most  incidental  observer. 

This  squirrel  is  most  generally  seen  scudding  along  the  lower 
rails  of  the  common  zig-zag  or  "  Virginia"  fences,  which  afford 
him  at  once  a  pleasant  and  secure  path,  as  in  a  few  turns  he  finds 
a  safe  hiding-place  behind  the  projecting  angles,  or  enters  his  bur- 
row undiscovered.  When  no  fence  is  near,  or  his  retreat  is  cut  off, 
after  having  been  out  in  search  of  food,  he  becomes  exceedingly 
alarmed,  and  runs  up  the  nearest  tree,  uttering  a  veiy  shrill  cry  or 
whistle,  indicative  of  his  distress,  and  it  is  in  this  situation  that  he 
is  most  frequently  made  captive  by  his  persecuting  enemies,  tho 
mischievous  school-boys. 

The  ground  squirrel  makes  his  burrow  generally  near  the  roots 
of  trees,  along  the  course  of  fences  and  old  walls,  or  in  banks  ad- 
jacent to  forests,  whence  he  obtains  his  principal  supplies  of  food. 
The  burrows  frequently  extend  to  very  considerable  distances, 
having  several  galleries  or  lateral  excavations,  in  which  provisions 
are  stored  for  winter  use.  The  burrow  has  always  two  openings, 
which  are  usually  far  distant  from  each  other  ;  it  very  rarely  hap- 
pens that  the  animal  is  dug  out,  unless  it  be  accidentally  during 
the  winter  season. 


48  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

The  ground  squirrel  is  rather  more  than  five  inches  in  length, 
from  the  nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail ;  the  last  is  about  two  inches 
and  n  half  long.  The  general  color  of  the  head  and  upper  parts 
of  the  body  is  reddish  brown,  all  the  hairs  on  these  parts  being 
gray  at  base.  The  eyelids  are  whitish,  and  from  the  external 
angle  of  each  eye  a  black  line  runs  towards  the  ear,  while  on  each 
cheek  there  ia  a  reddish  brown  line.  The  short  rounded  ears  are 
covered  with  fine  hairs,  which  are  on  the  outside  of  a  reddish 
brown  color,  and  within  of  a  whitish  gray.  The  upper  part  of  the 
neck,  shoulders,  and  base  of  the  hair  on  the  back,  are  of  a  gray 
brown,  mingled  with  whitish. 

On  the  back  there  are  five  longitudinal  black  bands,  which  are 
at  their  posterior  parts  bordered  slightly  with  red.  The  middle 
one  begins  at  the  back  of  the  head,  the  two  lateral  ones  on  the 
shoulders ;  they  all  terminate  at  the  rump,  whose  color  is  reddish. 
On  each  side  two  white  separate  the  lateral  black  bands.  The 
lower  part  of  the  flanks  and  sides  of  the  neck  are  of  a  paler 
red  ;  the  exterior  of  the  fore  feet  is  of  a  grayish  yellow  ;  the  thighs 
and  hind  feet  are  red  above.  The  upper  lip,  the  chin,  throat, 
oelly,  and  internal  face  of  the  limbs  are  of  a  dirty  brown.  The 
tail  is  reddish  at  its  base,  blackish  below,  and  has  an  edging  of 
black. 

The  ground  squirrel  is  sadly  injurious  to  corn  or  grain  fields, 
just  planted  or  sown,  when  the  fields  are  near  woods.  The  squir- 
rel digs  up  the  grain,  and  renders  planting  or  sowing  again  ne- 
cessary. 

The  gun  is  the  main  means  for  the  destruction  of  the  various 
squirrels. 

RATS,  MICE,  AND    THEIR    KIND. 

WE  have  hitherto  been  discussing  subjects,  presenting  rather  a 
doubtful  aspect,  as  affording  the  possibility  of  the  query  arising  as 
to  the  positive  or  actual  title  which  they  hold  to  rank  amongst  the 
"Pests "  of  "  the  Farm."  The  present  article  is  designed  to  em- 
brace an  inquiry  into  the  character  of  a  class  of  animals  relative  to 
which  no  possible  mistake  can  exist, — a  class  of  animals  whose  dep- 
redations are  universally  felt — animals  noxious  to  all,  and  possessed 
of  no  single  redeeming  quality  which  can  elicit  the  defence  of  any 
one  advocate.  As  to  extermination  meaning  extirpation,  that  is  an 
end  that,  even  with  the  greatest  assiduity  on  the  part  of  man,  it 
would  be  next  to  hopeless  to  expect  to  arrive  at ;  none  will  question 


QUADRUPEDS.  49 

the  right  which  man,  as  the  heaven-appointed  lord  of  the  creation, 
possesses  to  protect  his  property  from  the  inroads  of  the  invaders, 
and  to  check,  by  every  means  within  his  power,  the  extension  of  any 
race  of  animals,  who,  if  they  are  to  live,  must  live  to  his  detriment, 
upon  the  fruit  of  his  labor.  Of  all  four-footed  vermin,  perhaps, 
rats  and  mice,  with  their  varieties,  are  the  greatest  foes  to  the  agri- 
culturist, nay,  to  man  generally.  It  is,  in  short,  but  a  choice  be- 
tween their  extermination  and  his ;  for  if  suffered  to  increase  in 
numbers,  unchecked,  the  time  would  not  be  far  distant  when  the 
entire  globe  would  but  suffice  to  furnish  food  for  their  rapacious 
appetites,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  human  race,  created  by  our  Divine 
Maker  himself  its  legitimate  sovereign  and  lord.  Sentimental 
theorists  need  not  fear  the  extinction  of  this  troublesome  tribe  ;  let 
us  proceed  with  all  our  vigor— let  us  call  into  exercise  every  re- 
source of  human  cunning,  and  we  shall  still  find  ourselves,  to  a 
great  extent,  baffled  by  these  diminutive  marauders,  who,  despite 
of  all  our  efforts,  continue  to  thrive,  to  multiply,  to  grow  fat  upon 
the  products  of  our  toil.  The  utmost  that  we  can  effect  is  to  deci- 
mate their  ranks  ;  we  may  diminish  their  numbers,  but  extirpate 
them — never  !  I  am  far  from  blaming  the  poor  creatures  for  their 
predatory  habits.  I  am  fully  aware,  that  in  following  them,  they 
do  but  follow  certain  instincts  implanted  for  wise  purposes  in  their 
natures,  and  which,  when  the  earth  was  yet  scantily  peopled,  and 
artificial  culture  comparatively  unknown,  must  have  conduced 
greatly  to  utility.  So  it  was  at  creation — so  it  has  been.  But 
many  tribes  of  animals  were  then  created  by  the  Almighty  with  a 
view  to  so  many  special  purposes.  According  as  man  advances  in 
knowledge  and  consequent  improvement,  so  does  the  necessity  for 
the  intervention  of  brutal  aid  decrease,  until  at  length  what  was  at 
first  a  blessing,  will  if  suffered  to  remain,  become  a  pest.  So  it  was 
with  the  Rat.  In  earlier  ages,  when  man  had  no  settled  habita- 
tion, but  roved  to  and  fro  upon  the  earth,  killing,  eating,  and  wast- 
ing, the  aid  of  such  animals,  as  scavengers,  was  most  necessary,  in 
order  to  maintain  the  atmosphere  in  such  a  pure  and  healthful  con- 
dition as  was  necessary  for  his  support.  As  cultivation  of  the  soil 
commenced  and  progressed,  and  as  the  nomadic  habits  to  which  I 
allude  ceased,  so  did  the  necessity  cease  for  these  animals  to  exist 
in  their  wonted  numbers.  We  may,  therefore,  legitimately  con- 
clude, 1  think,  that  when  it  becomes,  as  it  has  become,  a  positive 
battle  between  the  rats  and  man  for  the  produce  of  the  ground,  and 
when  that  produce  owes  its  existence  to  the  labor  of  the  latter,  that 
3 


50  THE   PESTS  OF  THE  FAHM. 

he  possesses  every  legitimate  right  to  exterminate,  if  he  can,  hi* 
vermin  foes,  root  and  branch,  and  to  cry,  with  the  clearest  of  con- 
sciences, "  War — war  to  the — "  trap  ! 

There  are  three  descriptions  of  Rat  generally  known  as  a  nui- 
sance to  the  farmer  or  merchant :  the  common  Brown  or  Norway 
Rat,  the  indigenous  Black  Rat,  and  the  Wafr-r  Rat.  The  last  men- 
tioned is  seldom  a  true  rat ;  for  what  is  usually  known  as  Water  Rat 
is  not  a  rat  at  all,  but  an  animal  of  an  allied  genus,  properly  to  be 
called  Vole.  The  common  Brown  Rat  sometimes  also  presents  Al- 
bino characters,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  occasionally  to  be  found  of  a 
•white  color,  with  red  eyes.  It  is  not  my  intention,  neither  would 
it  suit  the  purpose  of  the  present  work,  to  enter  at  any  length  into 
the  natural  history  of  these  animals ;  a  brief  description  will  there- 
fore suffice. 


THE    COMMON    BROWN    RAT. 

The  most  formidable  is  the  common  Brown  Rat  (mm  decunxtniis), 
an  animal  for  whose  importation  we  are  indebted  to  the  Norwegians, 
and  which  has  now  almost  wholly  extirpated  our  indigenous  va- 
riety, the  Black  Rat  (mus  rattus).  These  animals  require  no  de- 
scription ; — very  little  to  our  satisfaction,  we  are  too  well  acquainted 
with  their  appearance.  The  Black  Rat  is  smaller  than  the  now 
common  variety  ;  its  color  is  a  slaty  blue,  sometimes  a  jet  black, 
and  ite  tail  is  longer  and  more  scaly  than  that  of  its  Norwegian 
conqueror.  The  White  Rat  is  rare,  and  is  merely  an  accidental 
variety  of  the  Brown.  These  animals  are  all  equally  mischievous, 
and  resemble  each  other  in  their  habits,  so  that  the  same  mode  of 
destruction  will  answer  for  all.  Various  plans  for  the  destruction 
of  rats  have  been  suggested,  but  I  confess  that  I  am  not  a  little 
surprised  that  the  adoption  of  some  effectual  means  should  be  so 
little  general  as  it  is ;  for  I  am  prepared  to  assert  that  were  all  who 


QUADKUPEDS. 


suffer  from  the  ravages  of  these  pests  to  apply  then-wolves  energeti- 
cally to  the  task  of  getting^rid  of  them,  they  would — not,  certainly, 
be  wholly  exterminated,  but  would  become  so  reduced  in  numbers 
as  to  be  no  longer  formidable — cease,  in  short,  to  occupy  a  position 
among  the  "  Pests  of  the  Farm." 

There  are  two  methods  by  which  rats  can  be  effectually  destroyed 
— TRAPS  and  POISON.  Some  writers  have  recommended  the 
former ;  others  have  been  in  favor  of  the  latter.  My  own  experi- 
ence induces  me  to  state,  that  neither  is  to  be  adopted  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  other,  both  being  equally  good  under  certain  circum- 
stances ;  it  must,  however,  be  admitted,  that  trapping  is  only  suited 
to  instances  where  the  vermin  are  few  in  number;  where  they  swarm, 
wholesale  measures  must  be  resorted  to,  and  the  trapping  of  indi- 
viduals would  be  idle  and  useless.  When  traps  are  to  be  em- 
ployed a  small  steel  spring-trap,  similar  to  that  which  I  have  de- 
scribed when  treating  of  the  wild  cat,  &c.,  but  of  course  much 
smaller,  is  that  -to  be  preferred.  It  must  be  washed  after  each  cap- 
ture, and  the  person  who  sets  it  should  disguise  the  natural  odor 

of  his  person,  by  using  a  little 


malt,  impregnated  slightly 
with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  the  oils  of  rhodium  and 
caraway.  The  proportions  are 
1  part  of  the  mixed  oils  to 
5,000  parts  of  malt.  A  por- 
tion of  this  should  be  rubbed 
between  the  hands  at  each 
manipulation  ;  tkis  is  one  ot 
the  great  secrets  of  profession- 
al rat-catchers.  The  above  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  baits  for 

*  rats  that  can  be  used,  and  may 
be  either  employed  in  baiting 
traps,  or  in  acting  as  a  vehicle  for 
using  poison.  There  is  another 
very  good  description  of  trap, 
already  described,  open  at  both 
ends,  the  doors  closing  on  the 
J  rats  running  upon  a  bridge  in  the 
middle.  We  have  endeavored 
to  explain  the  construction  of  this 
trap  in  the  three  accompanying  wood-cuts,  the  two  first  of 


n 


n 


52 


THE  PESTS   OF  THE  FARM. 


which  represent  tne  parts  oi 
the  trap  in  a  detached  state — 
the  third  as  it  appears  when  set. 
There  is  also  a  very  sim- 
ple description  of  trap,  which 
any  rustic  can  make,  and 
which,  in  the  absence  of  bet- 
ter, may  be  used  with  effect : 
it  consists  of  a  long  box,  open 
at  one  end,  having  the  sides 
grooved  to  admit  a  sliding 
door.  The  better  to  enable  the  reader  to  understand  the  construc- 
tion of  this  trap,  we  subjoin  the  accompanying  wood-cut : 

A — Represents  the  en- 
trance. 

B — An  upright,  supporting 
a  horizontal  beam,  attached  at 
C  to  a  string  fastened  to  a  bit 
of  meat,  which,  passing  between 
the  two  wires  represented  in 
the  wood-cut,  is  thus  held  in 
that  position. 

D — Is  the  door,  formed  of 
heavy  material,  and  running 
freely  in  grooves. 

"When  the  horizontal  beam 
is  drawn  downwards,  the  bit  of  meat  placed  between  the  wires  at 
C,  the  doo*  D  rises,  and  the  trap  is  set.  The  rat,  entering  at  D, 
bites  the  meat  at  C ;  the  weight  of  the  door,  no  longer  restrained, 
brings  it  suddenly  down,  and  the  animal  is  trapped.  There  can- 
not be  a  better  trap  than  this,  when  the  nuisance  is  confined  to  a 
few  solitary  rats  ;  but,  as  it  only  catches  one  at  a  time,  it  is  com- 
paratively useless  where  these  pests  exist  in  any  number  :  the  fact 
is,  that  poison  is  then  the  only  method  to  be  relied  on.  There  are 
many  objections  to  the  use  of  poison  ;  amongst  others,  the  obvious 
one  of  the  danger  of  poultry,  dogs,  or  other  animals,  eating  the 
fatal  mess,  and  falling  victims  to  their  error.  To  obviate  this  and 
other  objections,  I  shall  show  how  the  desired  end  can  be  attained 
by  means  of  a  substance  fatal  to  the  rats  alone — the  basis  of  that 
substance  is  phosphorus. 

"  The  following  recipe  for  the  destruction  of  rats  has  been  com* 


QUADRUPEDS.  53 

municated  by  Dr.  Ure  to  the  Council  of  the  English  Agricultural 
Society,  and  is  highly  recommended  as  the  best  known  means  of 
getting  rid  of  these  most  obnoxious  and  destructive  vermin.  It 
has  been  tried  by  several  intelligent  persons,  and  found  perfectly 
effectual.  Melt  hog's  lard  in  a  bottle  plunged  in  water,  heated  to 
about  150  degrees  of  Fahrenheit ;  introduce  into  it  half  an  ounce 
of  phosphorus  for  every  pound  of  lard  ;  then  add  a  pint  of  proof- 
spirit  or  whiskey ;  cork  the  bottle  firmly  after  its  contents  have 
been  heated  to  150  degrees,  taking  it  at  the  same  time  out  of  the 
water,  and  agitate  smartly  till  the  phosphorus  becomes  uniformly 
diffused,  forming  a  milky-looking  liquid.  This  liquid,  being  cooled, 
will  afford  a  white  compound  of  phosphorus  and  lard,  from  which 
the  spirit  spontaneously  separates,  and  may  be  poured  off  to  be 
used  again,  for  none  of  it  enters  into  the  combination,  but  it  merely 
serves  to  comminute  the  phosphorus,  and  diffuse  it  in  very  fine 
particles  through  the  lard.  This  compound,  on  being  warmed 
very  gently,  may  be  poured  out  into  a  mixture  of  wheat  flour  and 
sugar  incorporated  therewith,  and  then  flavored  with  oil  of  rhodium, 
or  not,  at  pleasure.  The  flavor  may  be  varied  with  oil  of  aniseed, 
<fec.  This  dough,  being  made  into  pellets,  is  to  be  laid  in  rat- 
holes.  By  its  luminousness  in  the  dark,  it  attracts  their  notice, 
and  being  agreeable  to  their  palates  and  noses,  it  is  readily  eaten, 
and  proves  certainly  fatal.  They  soon  are  seen  issuing  from  their 
lurking-places  to  seek  for  water  to  quench  their  burning  thirst  and 
bowels,  and  they  commonly  die  near  the  water.  They  continue  to 
eat  it  as  long  as  it  is  offered  to  them,  without  being  deterred  by 
the  fate  of  their  fellows,  as  is  known  to  be  the  case  with  arsenical 
doses.  It  may  be  an  easy  guide  for  those  who  are  desirous  of  fol- 
lowing Dr.  lire's  prescription,  and  may  not  have  a  thermometer  at 
hand  to  know  that  a  temperature  of  150  degrees  of  Fahrenheit  is 
equivalent  to  a  degree  of  heat  midway  between  that  at  which 
white  of  egg  coagulates,  and  white  wax  melts." 

I  have  little  to  offer  in  addition,  except  to  suggest  that  the  ve- 
hicle with  which  the  compound  of  lard  and  phosphorus  is  to  be 
used  may  be  fresh  malt,  instead  of  a  mixture  of  sugar  and  wheaten 
flour ;  and  I  would  also  suggest  the  following  preparation  to  be 
added,  as  an  allurement,  to  induce  the  rats  to  eat  freely  : 
Oil  of  Rhodium  1  scruple. 


Oil  of  Caraway 
Oil  Lavender 
Oil  of  Aniseed 
Tincture  of  Musk 


P1 

1  drachm. 
5  drops. 

10  drops. 

2  drops. 


54  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

This  is  to  be  added  to  the  compost,  in  the  proportion  of  about 
10  drops  to  the  ounce.  If  kept  in  a  well-stopped  bottle,  and  a  bit 
of  bladder  tied  over  the  stopper,  it  will  retain  its  strength  for  a 
length  of  time.  The  compound  of  phosphorus  and  lard  was 
known  to  professional  rat-catchers  before  Dr.  Ure  communicated 
the  above  formula  to  the  Agricultural  Society.  A  few  applications 
will  effect  the  clearance  of  the  entire  premises,  and  the  object  then 
to  be  desired  is  to  prevent  their  return.  In  the  "  Farmer's  Maga- 
zine," vol.  viii.,  p.  452,  the  following  receipt  is  given  for  this  impor- 
tant purpose  : — "  Take  one  pound  of  nitre,  and  one  pound  of  alum ; 
dissolve  them  together  in  two  quarts  of  spring  water ;  get  about  a 
bushel  of  bran,  and  make  a  mash  thereof,  putting  in  two  pints  *>f 
the  above  liquid,  and  mixing  all  together.  When  you  build  your 
stacks,  every  second  course,  take  a  handful  or  two  of  the  mash, 
and  throw  upon  them  till  they  come  to  the  easing.  I  have  never 
seen  this  tried,  but  an  agricultural  friend  states  he  has  tried  it,  and 
found  it  so  successful  that  he  never  has  a  stack  put  up  in  any  other 
manner. 

Rats  may  be  destroyed  in  great  numbers  in  a  barn,  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner  : — Before  all  the  grain  is  removed,  get  some  com- 
mon iron  chafing-dishes,  which  fill  with  lighted  charcoal,  upon  this 
strew  a  quantity  of  broken  stick  brimstone,  quit  the  barn  as  rapidly 
as  possible,  holding  your  breath  the  while,  close  fast  the  door,  and 
leave  the  building  shut  for  the  next  two  days.  On  re-entering  the 
barn,  you  will  then  find  quantities  of  rats  lying  dead  round  the 
chafing-dishes.  Some  may  have  been  stifled  in  their  holes,  and 
their  bodies  might,  if  no  precautions  were  taken  to  prevent  it, 
create  for  some  time  an  unpleasant  smell ;  to  prevent  this,  you 
have  only  to  stop  up  all  the  holes  with  mortar.  Perform  this 
operation  again  the  following  harvest,  just  previous  to  storing,  and 
you  will  no  longer  have  any  reason  to  complain  of  annoyance  from 
the  rats.  As  to  the  grain  in  stacks,  it  will  be  impossible  for  rats  to 
injure  them,  if  they  be  built  upon  proper  staddles  or  platforms  of 
stone  or  iron — the  former  should  be  built  with  an  overhanging 
ledge,  which  will  prevent  vermin  from  ascending — this  is  unneces- 
sary in  the  case  of  the  latter,  the  iron  legs  presenting  a  sufficient 
obstacle  to  their  ascent. 

The  water-rat,  or  more  properly,  water-wZe,  is  somewhat  larger 
than  the  common  rat,  has  a  short  tail,  and  small  round  ears.  Tnis 
animal  rarely  exists  in  numbers  sufficient  to  do  any  very  great 
amount  of  mischief;  a  ferret  and  a  brace  of  terriers  will,  at  all 


QUADRUPEDS.  55 

events,  effectually  clear  a  stream  of  them  in  a  very  short  time, 
and  the  chase  will  afford  exciting  amusement  of  a  summer  evening 
I  shall  conclude  the  subject  of  the  destruction  of  rats  with  an 
amusing  account  of  a  novel,  but  apparently,  under  the  circum- 
stances, a  most  effective  mode  of  accomplishing  this  object. 

BARRACK  FOR  RATS. 

An  extensive  bacon-merchant  in  Limerick,  who  kills  between 
forty  and  fifty  thousand  pigs  in  a  season,  has  adopted  the  following 
successful  method  to  destroy  the  rats  which  abound  on  his  pre- 
mises, where  the  abundance  of  food  will  always  occasion  a  vast  col- 
lection of  these  troublesome  and  destructive  animals.  He  has 
erected  a  quadrangular  stone  building,  eleven  feet  long,  and  seven 
feet  wide,  with  a  wall  three  feet  high,  having  flags  laid  flat  upon 
the  top,  but  projecting  a  little  over  the  inside  of  the  wall.  All 
round  the  wall  inside,  at  the  base,  are  numerous  holes,  like  pigeon 
holes,  which  do  not  go  quite  through,  except  a  few  to  allow  a  free 
passage  to  the  little  animals.  Outside  of  the  barrack  is  a  plentiful 
supply  of  water  and  food,  such  as  bones  and  useless  offal.  The 
interior  of  the  walls  is  occupied  by  boards,  lumber,  and  straw — 
just  such  concealment  as  these  animals  are  known  to  prefer,  and 
the  whole  is  covered  by  a  moveable  wooden  roof.  When  it  is 
judged  proper  to  destroy  them,  the  passages  are  stopped  at  the 
outside,  the  roof  is  lifted  off,  and  the  boards  are  taken  out.  The 
frightened  animals  run  up  the  wall,  but  their  escape  is  impossible, 
for  they  strike  against  tl>e  projecting  flags  and  fall  back  again. 
They  then  run  into  the  small  holes  below,  but  these  are  only  just 
large  enough  to  admit  their  bodies,  whilst  the  tails  remain  sticking 
out,  a  secure  prize  to  the  men  who  go  in  over  the  wall ;  and  by 
this  unlucky  appendage  they  suddei  ly  drag  them  out,  and  fling 
them  to  a  posse  of  anxious  dogs  outside  of  the  fortress,  or  into  a 
barrel  of  water,  where  they  are  soon  destroyed.  As  there  are  not 
holes  enough  in  the  wall  inside,  the  noise  and  uproar  soon  frighten 
another  division  of  rats  into  the  vacated  openings,  and  these  being 
treated  in  the  same  unceremonious  manner,  the  whole  garrison  is 
thus  speedily  destroyed.  As  many  as  seven  or  eight  hundred 
have  been  killed  in  one  clearing.  Rats  being  fond  of  straw,  they 
also  become  very  numerous  on  the  lofts  where  this  article  is  kept, 
to  be  used  for  singing  bacon,  and  they  cut  it  into  short  pieces  with 
their  teeth,  which  renders  it  useless  for  this  purpose.  The  pro* 


56 


THE   PESTS   OF  THE   FAKM. 


prietor  tried  the  effect  of  putting  a  pet  fox  to  mount  guard  ;n  the 
lofts,  and  it  was  found  that  he  killed  such  quantities  of  the  rats, 
that  three  or  four  were  procured  to  garrison  the  place  instead  of 
one. 

MICK. — Of  this  tribe  there  are  several  varieties,  which  some  re- 


THE    JUMPING    FIELD    MOUSE. 

gard  as  distinct  species,  while  others  assert  the  contrary.  I  have 
neither  space  nor  inclination  to  enter  into  controversy,  and  shall 
confine  myself  to  facts.  The  common  house-mouse,  with  which  all 
are  familiar,  is  the  enemy  most  to  be  dreaded  in-doors,  in  the  barn, 
and  in  the  corn-stack.  Wherever  there  are  rats,  mice  will  be  few 
in  number,  the  former  preying  upon  the  latter.  In  the  field  the 
farmer  has  both  the  house-mouse,  and  two  descriptions  of  field- 
mice,  or  voles  (arvicola)  to  contend  with,  a  long  and  a  short-tailed. 
These  are  the  principal,  and  include  several  sub-varieties.  All  holes 
in  a  dwelling-house  should  be  stopped  with  lime  and  pounded 
glass.  The  fumigating  system  will  exterminate  them  from  the 
barn,  and  if  the  stacks  be  built  as  I  have  directed,  the  corn  there 
is  safe  from  their  attacks.  It  is  in  the  field  that  the  battle  has  to 
be  fought — it  is  there  that  mice  are  really  formidable,  and  require 
ingenuity  to  baffle  and  destroy  them.  Prison  sown  in  the  drills 
will,  of  course,  destroy  mice,  but  poultry  and  birds  will  possibly 
suffer  with  them.  Our  great  object,  therefore,  must  be  to  discover 
some  substance  fatal  to  them,  and  innoxious  to  larger  animal* 


QUADRUPEDS.  67 

The  small  size,  and  delicate  constitution  of  the  mouse,  renders  this 
no  very  difficult  matter ;  and  if  every  former  will  follow  my  .id- 
vice,  his  fields  will  be  soon  free.  In  the  first  instance,  lest  farmers 
should  suppose  that  I  exaggerate  the  havoc  which  these  animals 
perpetrate,  much  of  it  possibly  without  the  knowledge  of  the  pro- 
prietor of  the  soil,  who  vainly  speculates  mentally  in  conjectures  as 
to  the  cause  of  his  grain-crop  having  proved  so  light,  I  shall  pre- 
sent them  with  the  following  statement,  on  the  authority  of  Mr. 
Maxwell,  author  of  "  Wild  Sports  of  the  West,"  who,  if  I  mistake 
not,  quotes  from  Mr.  Jesse. — "  An  extraordinary  instance  of  the 
rapid  increase  of  mice,  and  of  the  injury  they  sometimes  do,  oc- 
curred a  few  years  ago  in  the  new  plantations  made,  by  order  of 
the  crown,  in  Dean  Forest,  Gloucestershire,  and  in  the  New  Forest, 
Hampshire.  Soon  after  the  formation  of  these  plantations,  a  sud- 
den and  rapid  increase  of  mice  took  place  in  them,  which  threat- 
ened destruction  to  the  whole  of  the  young  plants.  Vast  numbers 
of  these  were  killed — the  mice  having  eaten  through  the  roots  of 
five-year  old  oaks  and  chesnuts,  generally  just  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  Hollies,  also,  which  were  five  and  six  feet  high,  were 
barked  round  the  bottom  ;  and  in  some  instances  the  mice  had 
crawled  up  the  tree,  and  were  seen  feeding  on  the  bark  of  the  up- 
per branches. 

"  The  following  account  will  show  the  numbers  of  mice  caught 
in  the  different  enclosures  in  Dean  Forest,  in  three  months,  from 
September  to  January,  with  the  number  of  acres,  and  the  propor- 
tion between  the  long  and  the  short-tailed  mice  : — 

Short-tailed  Long-tailed. 

Acres.              Mice.  Mice.  Total. 

Haywood     enclosure,            418            12,850  8  12,858 

Oily  Hill             do.                  41              1,161  11  1,172 

Crabtree  Hill      do.                372              7,851  7,851 


Park  Hill  do.  113  2,665 


Shut  Castle          do.  163  484          33  517 


Sallow  Valley    do.  386  1,361 

Barnhill  do.  50  70 


2,665 


1,361 
70 
3 


Birchwood          do.  50  3 

Whitemeadparkdo.  100  1,559          15  1,574 

Total  Acres,  1,693  Total  Mice,  28,071" 

Having  now  satisfied  you  of  the  reality  of  this  nuisance,  let  us 
consider  some  of  the  modes  in  which  it  may  be  removed. 

In  "  British  Husbandry,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  552,  it  is  stated  that  the  tops 
of  last  year's  shoots  of  furze,  chopped  small,  and  sown  with  the 


58  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

corn,  will  prevent  their  depredations ;  and  it  is  added,  in  a  note, 
that  their  ravages  had  run  to  such  a  height,  in  some  parts  of 
France,  as  to  have  ruined  the  farmers  !  The  mode  adopted  in  that 
country  for  their  destruction  is  also  given  : — "  At  Angerville,  whole 
farms  have  been  given  up  to  the  proprietors,  in  consequence  of 
their  continued  devastation ;  and  the  only  method  known  of 
checking  them  is  to  defer  the  sowing  any  grain  until  spring,  which 
precaution  occasions  them  to  forsake  the  fields,  as  it  deprives  them 
of  the  means  of  winter  subsistence."  The  method  adopted  in  the 
Forest  of  Dean,  the  ravages  committed  in  which  we  have  described 
above,  and  which  proved  efficacious  to  the  fullest  extent,  after  all 
others  had  failed,  consisted  in  boring  holes  in  the  ground,  to  the 
depth  of  twenty  inches,  wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  top,  in  which 
was  dropped  some  favorite  food.  The  mice  willingly  entered,  and 
from  the  form  of  the  hole,  being  prevented  from  getting  out  again, 
were  taken  in  such  numbers  as  speedily  rid  the  ground  of  them. 
One  of  the  best  pieces  of  advice  on  this  subject  is  the  following  : — 
"  Let  the  farmer  first  consider  the  nature  and  quality  of  his  ground, 
and  which  fields  are,  from  the  nature  of  their  soil,  most  likely  to 
harbor  the  intruders,  also  in  what  places  they  are  most  mischievous. 
Let  him  never  sow  these  under  furrow,  i.  e.,  until  the  intruders 
have  been  expelled ;  for  that  method  of  cropping  deprives  him  of 
the  power  of  combating  his  enemies.  They  work  under  ground, 
as  it  were,  and  will  never  come  in  the  way  of  his  poison.  When 
these  fields  have  been  sown  otherwise,  and  harrowed  over,  the  mice 
must  come  upon  the  surface,  and  dig  down  for  the  corn,  and  they 
will  then  certainly  meet  with  anything  he  lays  on  the  ground  for . 
them."  So  far,  so  good.  The  author  proceeds  to  point  out  the 
description  of  poison  to  be  employed.  This  is,  "  a  peck  of  barley 
meal,  a  pound  of  powder  of  white  hellebore  root,  and  four  ounces 
of  powder  of  staves-acre,  and  when  these  are  all  mixed  together 
by  sifting  through  a  coarse  hair-sieve,  add  half  a  pound  of  honey, 
and  as  much  milk  as  will  work  the  whole  into  a  paste.  Let  this 
be  broken  in  pieces,  and  scattered  over  the  field  at  the  time  when 
the  mice  are  known  to  be  coming.  They  will  eat  it  greedily,  and 
it  is  certain  death  to  them.  There  is  nothing  in  any  of  the  ingre- 
dients disagreeable  to  the  taste  when  thus  mixed ;  and  every  mor- 
sel of  it  will  be  devoured.  The  mice  will  be  kept  from  digging 
after  the  corn,  and,  at  the  same  time,  will  be  killed  by  the  ingre- 
dients." I  have  heard  farmers  who  had  tried  the  above,  speak 
favorably  of  it.  But  the  most  successful  remedy  of  ^  lich  I  have 


QUADRUPEDS.  59 

yet  heard  is  dropping  into  the  holes,  and  on  different  portions  of  the 
field,  pellets  of  the  phosphoric  compound  described  when  treating 
of  the  rat.  A  little  trouble  of  this  kind,  taken  in  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer, when  the  holes  can  most  easily  be  seen,  will  soon  greatly 
diminish  the  number  of  the  mice,  if  not  wholly  extirpate  them. 

Before  leaving  this  section,  I  conceive  it  advisable  to  say  a  few 
words  of  two  valuable  aids  11-  the  destruction  of  many  of  the  pests 
which  I  have  enumerated.  1  think  that  a  few  words  of  advice  as 
to  dogs  and  ferrets  may  not  be  amiss ;  for,  after  all,  the  worst  ot 
these  four-footed  plagues  is  undeniably  the  rat.  There  are  three 
distinct  sorts  of  terrier — the  common  Scotch,  the  Skye,  and  the 
English.  The  Scotch  is  a  strong,  wire-haired  dog,  standing  mode- 
rately high  on  his  legs,  with  a  thick  head  and  a  broad  muzzle ;  the 
Skye  is  very  short  on  the  legs,  long  in  the  back,  small  head,  and 
narrow-muzzled ;  his  hair  is  also  stiff  and  coarse  ;  the  English  ter- 
rier is  short,  close-haired,  stands  high  on  his  legs,  has  a  thickish 
head,  with  a  long  and  fine  muzzle,  and  is  usually  of  a  black-and- 
tan  color.  It  is  not,  perhaps,  very  material  as  to  which  of  these 
breeds  you  have,  provided  you  train  them  properly  to  their  game. 

The  proper  time  for  breaking  your  whelps  is  at  the  age  of  six 
to  eight  months  ;  if  you  do  it  earlier  you  may  blink  or  cow  them, 
and  if  you  neglect  it  to  a  later  period,  you  may  find  them  unfit, 
too  old  for  tuition.  One  great  point  is  to  teach  your  dogs  never 
to  mouth — this  would  prevent  them  from  being  rapid  killers,  and 
would  cause  the  escape  of  many  a  rat :  teach  them  to  kill  a  rat  in 
a  single  chop,  and  then  to  drop  the  carcase.  You  will  readily  effect 
this  by  putting  him  into  a  corn  bin  with  a  dozen  or  two  rats ;  he 
will  then  be  in  a  hurry  to  get  at  all,  and  will  not  waste  his  time 
with  any  individual. 

FERRETS  are  originally  natives  of  Africa ;  it  will,  therefore,  be 
obvious  that  they  require  warmth  and  a  perfectly  dry  hutch. 
These  animals  are  by  no  means  to  be  trifled  with,  as  they  are  only 
half  reclaimed.  Goldsmith  says  they  have  been  known  to  attack 
and  kill  children  in  the  cradle.  Mr.  Jesse  relates  an  incident  that 
occurred  a  few  years  since  at  Kingston  in  Surrey,  of  a  ferret  attack- 
ing a  child,  and  having  it  nearly  killed  before  it  could  be  removed, 
and  even  then  persevered  in  its  attacks  until  its  back  was  broken 
by  repeated  kicks,  and  it  perished.  I  myself  was  one  evening 
looking  for  a  bitch  ferret  which  I  missed  from  her  hutch  ;  it  was 
dark,  and  I  had  only  a  candle  to  aid  me  in  my  search,  when  she 


60  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

suddenly  sprang  at  my  face,  MS  I  was  stooping  over  her  place  of 
concealment — the  gloom  had  prevented  my  seeing  her — and  seized 
me  by  the  cartilage  of  the  nose,  to  which  she  hung  with  all  the 
obstinacy  of  a  bull-dog.  I  succeeded  in  getting  her  oft'  by  plung- 
ing my  face  into  a  tub  of  water. 

When  ratting,  some  ferrets  require  muzzling,  as  otherwise  they 
will,  if  they  capture  a  rat,  lie  upon  the  carcase,  and,  after  satiating 
themselves  witli  the  blood,  fall  asleep  there  ;  if  they  do  so,  you 
may  get  them  out  by  means  of  smoke,  but  the  use  of  the  muzzle 
is  better.  This  consists  of  a  little  round  bit  of  leather,  having  a 
hole  in  the  centre,  through  which  the  ferret's  nose  is  passed,  and 
attached  with  side  straps  to  a  collar  which  encircles  the  neck.  Be 
careful  that  there  be  no  loose  straps  or  strings  about  it,  as  these 
might  become  entangled  with  roots,  &c.,  in  the  hole,  and  thus  keep 
the  ferret  prisoner  till  starved  to  death. 


SECTION    II. 
PREDACIOUS    BIRDS. 

EAGLES KITES  AND  HAWKS CROWS,  RAVENS,  ETC. 

OF  all  birds,  it  may  be  said  with  truth,  that  they  do  more  good 
than  harm.  Did  farmers  observe  their  habits  closely,  they  would 
know  this.  Even  the  crow,  detested  and  destructive  as  he  is,  is 
destructive  only  for  a  very  few  days  in  each  year,  and  his  depreda- 
tions, in  a  perceptible  manner,  are  ordinarily  confined  to  the  corn- 
field, just  at  the  season  of  the  sprouting  of  the  seed,  and  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  blade  above  the  ground.  He  somewhat  infests 
newly-sown  wheat,  oats,  and  barley.  And  here  ends  his  de- 
predations. The  benefit  that  his  race  confers  is  the  destruction 
of  myriads  of  destroying  worms.  Did  the  crow  not  eat  these,  they 
would  do  far  more  injury  than  lie  does.  They  cannot  be  deterred 
from  destroying — he  may.  The  robin  and  the  woodpecker  are 
pests  among  the  cherries,  when  ripe,  and  yet  they  consume  insects, 
worms,  caterpillars,  in  vast  numbers,  that  living,  would  destroy  far 
more  fruit  than  the  birds.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  without 
birds,  we  should  never  grow  any  fruit.  The  owl  and  the  hawk, 
that  destroy  occasionally  a  chicken,  are  mousers,  and  in  the-destruo- 
lion  of  mice  and  moles,  repay  amply  the  evil  they  do. 


BIRDS.  61 

• 

It  may  reasonably  be  doubted  if  any  birds,  even  the  eagle,  does 
as  much  harm  as  good.  Wo  always  observe  the  evil  done,  rarely 
the  benefit  rendered. 

Among  the  birds,  the  only  pests  worthy  of  being  noticed  aro 
the  eagle,  the  crow  and  raven,  the  hawk  (or  kite,  as  he  is  frequently 
called),  and  the  owl.  j 

THE  EAGLE. — The  eagle  is  a  formidable  "  pest  of  the  farm," 
pouncing  from  time  to  time  upon  the  various  inmates  of  the  poul- 
try-yard, and  carrying  away  the  young  in  its  talons,  and  even  oc- 
casionally extending  its  depredations  to  a  young  pig  or  lamb  ; 
besides,  being,  in  some  instances,  known  to  attack  a  sickly  or  dying 
beast,  and  to  anticipate  death  by  (vulture  fashion)  pecking  out  its 
eyes.  Still  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  eagle  usually  behaves  in 
a  nobler  manner,  arid,  unless  when  very  hard  pinched  by  appetite, 
contents  himself  with  such  prey  as  he  can  convey  away  to  his  nest, 
or,  as  it  is  called,  his  eyrie,  on  the  distant  cliff. 

There  are  three  sorts  of  eagle  whose  depredations  are  most  to  be 
feared  by  farmers.  These  are,  the  Bald  Eagle  or  White-Headed 
Eagle,  the  Ring-Tailed  Eagle,  and  the  Sea  Eagle.  A  few  words 
relative  to  the  destruction  of  these  birds  will  suffice,  and  the  one 
set  of  directions  will  equally  apply  to  all.  The  best  mode  of  pro- 
tection against  the  ravages  of  the  eagles  is  to  shoot  them  where 
seen,  and  to  have  their  nests  annually  robbed.  This  is  best  ma- 
naged by  offering  a  bounty  for  the  capture  of  young  ones,  or,  as 
they  are  called,  the  eaglets. 

BALD  EAGLE  OR  WHITE-HEADED  EAGLE. — This  distinguished 
bird  is  entitled  to  particular  notice.  He  has  been  long  known  to 
naturalists,  being  common  to  both  continents,  and  occasionally  met 
with  from  a  very  high  northern  latitude,  to  the  borders  of  the  tor- 
rid zone,  but  chiefly  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea,  and  along  the  shores 
and  cliffs  of  our  lakes  and  large  rivers.  Formed  by  nature  for 
braving  the  severest  cold  ;  feeding  equally  on  the  produce  of  the 
sea  and  of  the  land  ;  possessing  powers  of  flight  capable  of  out- 
stripping even  the  tempests  themselves  ;  unawed  by  anything  but 
man ;  and,  from  the  ethereal  heights  to  which  he  soars,  looking 
abroad,  at  one  glance,  on  an  immeasurable  expanse  of  forests, 
fields,  lakes,  and  ocean,  deep  below  him,  he  appears  indifferent  to 
the  little  localities  of  change  of  seasons  ;  as,  in  a  few  minutes,  he 
can  pass  from  summer  to  winter,  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  re- 
gions of  the  atmosphere,  the  abode  of  eternal  cold,  and  thence  de- 


62  THE   PESTS  OF  THE   FAKM.  ^ 

scend,  at  will,  to  the  torrid,  or  the  arctic  regions  of  the  earth.  He 
is,  therefore,  found,  at  all  seasons,  in  the  countries  he  inhabits  ;  but 
prefers  such  places  as  have  been  mentioned  above,  from  the  great 
partiality  he  has  for  fish. 

In  procuring  these,  he  displays,  in  a  very  singular  manner,  the 

fenius  and  energy  of  his  character,  which  is  fierce,  contemplative, 
aring,  and  tyrannical, — attributes  not  exerted  but  on  particular 
occasions,  but,  when  put  forth,  overpowering  all  opposition. 

When  driven,  as  he  sometimes  is,  by  the  combined  courage  and 
perseverance  of  the  fish  hawks,  from  their  neighborhood,  and  forced 
to  hunt  for  himself,  he  retires  more  inland,  in  search  of  young  pigs, 
of  which  he  destroys  great  numbers.  In  the  lower  parts  of  Vir- 
ginia and  North  Carolina,  where  the  inhabitants  raise  vast  herds 
of  those  animals,  complaints  of  this  kind  are  very  general  against 
him.  He  also  destroys  young  lambs  in  the  early  part  of  spring  ; 
and  will  sometimes  attack  old  sickly  sheep,  aiming  foriously  at 
their  eyes. 

His  intrepidity  of  character  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following 
fact,  which  occurred  a  few  years  ago,  near  Great  Egg  Harbor,  New 
Jersey  : — A  woman,  who  happened  to  be  weeding  in  the  garden, 
had  set  her  child  down  near,  to  amuse  itself  while  she  was  at  work ; 
when  a  sudden  and  extraordinary  rushing  sound,  and  a  scream 
from  her  child,  alarmed  her,  and,  starting  up,  she  beheld  the  infant 
thrown  down,  and  dragged  some  few  feet,  and  a  large  bald  eaglo 
bearing  off  a  fragment  of  its  frock,  which  being  the  only  part 
seized,  and  giving  way,  providentially  saved  the  life  of  the  infant. 

The  appetite  of  the  bald  eagle,  though  habituated  to  long  fast- 
ing, is  of  the  most  voracious,  and  often  the  most  indelicate  kind. 
Fish,  when  he  can  obtain  them,  are  preferred  to  all  other  fare. 
Young  lambs  and  pigs  ai-e  dainty  morsels,  and  made  free  with  on 
all  favorable  occasions.  Ducks,  geese,  gulls,  and  other  sea  fowl, 
are  also  seized  with  avidity. 

The  white-headed  eagle  is  three  feet  long,  and  seven  feet  in  ex- 
tent ;  the  bill  is  of  a  rich  yellow ;  cere,  the  same,  slightly  tinged 
with  green  ;  mouth,  flesh-colored  ;  tip  of  the  tongue,  bluish  black ; 
the  head,  chief  part  of  the  neck,  vent,  tail-coverts,  and  tail,  are 
white  in  the  perfect,  or  old  birds  of  both  sexes, — in  those 
under  three  years  of  age  these  parts  are  of  a  gray  brown ;  the 
rest  of  the  plumage  is  dark  brown,  each  feather  tipped  with  pale 
brown,  lightest  on  the  shoulder  of  the  wing,  and  darkest  towards 
its  extremities.  The  conformation  of  the  wing  is  admirably  adapted 


BIRDS.  63 

for  the  support  of  so  large  a  bird  ;  it  m  jasures  two  feet  in  breadth 
on  the  greater  quills,  and  sixteen  inches  on  the  lesser  ;  the  longest 
primaries  are  twenty  inches  in  length,  and  upwards  of  one  inch  in 
circumference  where  they  enter  the  skin ;  the  broadest  secondaries 
are  three  inches  in  breadth  across  the  vane  ;  the  scapulars  are  very 
large  and  broad,  spreading  from  the  back  to  the  wing,  to  prevent 
the  air  from  passing  through  ;  another  range  of  broad  flat  feathers, 
from  three  to  ten  inches  in  length,  also  extends  from  the  lower  part 
of  the  breast  to  the  wing  below,  for  the  same  purpose ;  between 
these  lies  a  deep  triangular  cavity;  the  thighs  are  remarkably 
thick,  strong,  and  muscular,  covered  with  long  feathers  pointing 
backwards,  usually  called  the  femoral  feathers  ;  the  legs,  which  are 
covered  half  way  below  the  knee,  before,  with  dark,  brown  downy 
feathers,  are  of  a  rich  yellow,  the  color  of  ripe  Indian  corn ;  feet, 
the  same ;  claws,  blue-black,  very  large  and  strong,  particularly  the 
inner  one,  which  is  considerably  the  largest ;  soles,  very  rough  and 
warty  ;  the  eye  is  sunk  under  a  bony,  or  cartilaginous  projection, 
of  a  pale  yellow  color,  and  is  turned  considerably  forwards,  not 
standing  parallel  with  the  cheeks ;  the  his  is  of  a  bright  straw  color, 
pupil  black. 

The  male  is  generally  two  or  three  inches  shorter  than  the  fe- 
male ;  the  white  on  the  head,  neck,  and  tail  being  more  tinged 
with  yellowish,  and  its  whole  appearance  less  formidable ;  the 
brown  plumage  is  also  lighter,  and  the  bird  itself  less  daring  than 
the  female, — a  circumstance  common  to  almost  all  birds  of  prey. 

The  eagle  is  said  to  live  to  a  great  age, — sixty,  eighty,  and,  as 
some  assert,  one  hundred  years.  This  circumstance  is  remarkable, 
when  we  consider  the  seeming  intemperate  habits  of  the  bird, 
sometimes  fasting,  through  necessity,  for  several  days,  and  at  other 
times  gorging  itself  with  animal  food  till  its  craw  swells  out  the 
plumage  of  that  part,  forming  a  large  protuberance  on  the  breast. 
This,  however,  is  its  natural  food,  and  for  these  habits  its  whole  or- 
ganization is  particularly  adapted.  Its  food  is  simple,  it  indulges 
freely,  uses  great  exercise,  breathes  the  purest  air,  is  healthy, 
vigorous,  and  long  lived. 

THE  RING-TAILED  EAGLE. — This  noble  bird,  in  strength,  spirit, 
and  activity,  ranks  among  the  first  of  its  tribe.  It  is  found,  though 
sparingly  dispersed,  over  the  whole  temperate  and  arctic  regions, 
particularly  the  latter ;  breeding  on  high,  precipitous  rocks,  always 
^referring  a  mountainous  country. 

The  ring-tailed  eagle  measures  nearly  three  feet  in  length  ;  the 


64  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

bill  is  of  a  brownish  horn  color ;  the  cere,  sides  of  the  mouth,  and 
feet,  j-ellow  ;  iris  of  the  eye,  reddish  hazel,  the  eye  turned  consider- 
ably forwards ;  eyebrow,  remarkably  prominent,  projecting  over 
the  eye,  and  giving  a  peculiar  sternness  to  the  aspect  of  the  bird ; 
the  crown  is  flat ;  the  plumage  of  the  head,  throat,  and  neck,  long 
and  pointed ;  that  on  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  neck,  very 
pale  ferruginous ;  fore  part  of  the  crown,  black ;  all  the  pointed 
feathers  are  shafted  with  black ;  whole  upper  parts,  dark  blackish 
brown ;  wings,  black ;  tail,  rounded,  long,  of  a  white,  or  pale 
cream  color,  minutely  sprinkled  with  specks  of  ash,  and  dusky,  and 
ending  in  a  broad  band  of  deep  dark  brown,  of  nearly  one-third  its 
length;  chin,  cheeks,  and  throat, black;  whole  lower  parts,  a  deep 
dark  brown,  except  the  vent  and  inside  of  the  thighs,  which  are 
white,  stained  with  brown  ;  legs,  thickly  covered  to  the  feet,  with 
brownish  white  down,  or  feathers ;  claws,  black,  very  large,  sharp, 
and  formidable,  the  hind  one  full  two  inches  long. 

The  ring-tailed  eagle  is  found  in  the  northern  parts  of  America. 

SEA  EAGLE  OR  GRAY  EAGLE. — This  eagle  inhabits  the  same 
countries,  frequent  the  same  situations,  and  lives  on  the  same  kind 
of  food,  as  the  bald  eagle,  with  whom  it  is  often  seen  in  company. 
It  resembles  this  last  much  in  figure,  size,  form  of  the  bill,  legs, 
and  claws,  and  is  often  seen  associating  with  it  both  along  the  At- 
lantic coast  and  in  the  vicinity  of  our  takes  and  large  rivers. 

The  sea  eagle  is  said,  by  Salerne,  to  build  on  the  loftiest  oaks  a 
very  broad  nest,  into  which  it  drops  two  large  eggs,  that  are  quite 
round,  exceedingly  heavy,  and  of  a  dirty  white  color.     Of  the  pro 
cise  time  of  building,  we  have  no  account. 

The  bird  measures  three  feet  in  length,  and  upwards  of  seven 
feet  in  extent.  The  bill  formed  exactly  like  that  of  the  bald  eagle, 
but  of  a  dusky  brown  color ;  cere  and  legs,  bright  yellow ;  the  lat- 
ter, as  in  the  bald  eagle,  feathered  a  little  below  the  kneo ;  irides, 
a  bright  straw  color ;  head  above,  neck,  and  back,  streaked  with 
light  brown,  deep  brown,  and  white,  the  plumage  being  white, 
tipped  and  centred  with  brown ;  scapulars,  brown  ;  lesser  wing- 
coverts,  very  pale,  intermixed  with  white ;  primaries,  black,  their 
shafts  brownish  white  ;  rump,  pale  brownish  white  ;  tail,  rounded, 
somewhat  longer  than  the  wings,  when  shut,  brown  on  the  exterior 
vanes,  the  inner  ones  white,  sprinkled  with  dirty  brown  ;  throat, 
breast,  and  belly,  white,  dashed  and  streaked  with  different  tints  of 
brown  and  pale  yellow ;  vent,  brown,  tipped  with  white ;  femorals, 
dark  bu  iwn,  tipped  with  lighter ;  auritfulars,  brown,  forming  a  bar 


BIRDS.  66 

from  below  the  eye  backwards  ;  plumagi  of  the  neck,  long,  narrow, 
and  pointed,  as  is  usual  with  eagles,  anc  of  a  Irownish  color  tip- 
ped with  white. 

The  sea  eagle  is  said  to  hunt  at  night,  as  well  as  during  the  day, 
and  that,  besides  fish,  it  feeds  on  chickens,  birds,  hares,  and  other 
animals.  It  is  also  said  to  catch  fish  during  the  night ;  and  that 


tftofi 


THE    SEA    EAGLE. 

the  noise  of  its  plunging  into  the  water  is  heard  at  a  great  distance. 
But,  in  the  descriptions  of  writers,  this  bird  has  been  so  fre- 
quently confounded  with  the  osprey,  as  to  leave  little  doubt  that 
the  habits  and  manners  of  the  one  have  been  often  attributed  to 
both,  and  others  added  that  are  common  to  neither. 

The  gun,  poisoned  meats,  or  traps  baited  with  meat  or  fish,  are 
the  only  means  of  destroying  eagles. 

THE  CROW. — This  is  perhaps  the  most  generally  known,  and 
least  beloved,  of  all  our  land  birds ;  having  neither  melody  of  song 


66  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FAEM. 

por  beauty  of  plumage,  .LOP  excellence  of  flesh,  no?  civility  of  man- 
ners to  recommend  him ;  on  the  contrary,  he  is  br  tnded  as  a  thief 
and  a  plunderer — a  kind  of  black-coated  vagabond,  who  hovers 
over  the  fields  of  the  industrious,  fattening  on  their  labors,  and,  by 
his  voracity,  often  blasting  their  expectations.  Hated  as  he  is  by  the 
farmer,  watched  and  persecuted  by  almost  every  bearer  of  a  gun, 
who  all  triumph  in  his  destruction,  had  not  Heaven  bestowed  on 
him  intelligence  and  sagacity  far  beyond  common,  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  the  whole  tribe  (in  these  parts  at  least)  would  long 
ago  have  ceased  to  exist. 

The  crow  is  a  constant  attendant  on  agriculture,  and  a  general 
inhabitant  of  the  cultivated  parts  of  North  America.  In  the  inte- 
rior of  the  forest  he  is  more  rare,  unless  during  the  season  of  breed- 
ing. He  is  particularly  attached  to  low  flat  corn  countries,  lying 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  sea,  or  of  large  rivers  ;  and  more  nu- 
merous in  the  northern  than  southern  states.  A  strong  antipathy, 
it  is  said,  prevails  between  the  crow  and  the  raven,  insomuch,  that 
where  the  latter  is  numerous,  the  former  rarely  resides. 

The  usual  breeding  time  of  the  crow,  is  in  March,  April,  and 
May,  during  which  season  they  are  dispersed  over  the  woods  in 
pairs,  and  roost  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  tree  they  have  selected 
for  their  nest.  About  the  middle  of  March  they  begin  to  build, 
generally  choosing  a  high  tree. 

It  is  in  the  month  of  May,  and  until  the  middle  of  June,  that 
the  crow  is  most  destructive  to  the  corn-fields,  digging  up  the 
newly  planted  grains  of  maize,  pulling  up  by  the  roots  those  that 
have  begun  to  vegetate,  and  thus  frequently  obliging  the  farmer  to 
replant,  or  lose  the  benefit  of  the  soil ;  and  this  sometimes  twice, 
and  even  three  times,  occasioning  a  considerable  additional  expense, 
and  inequality  of  harvest.  No  mercy  is  now  shown  him.  The 
myriads  of  worms,  moles,  mice,  caterpillars,  grubs,  and  beetles, 
which  he  has  destroyed,  are  altogether  overlooked  on  these  occa- 
sions. Detected  in  robbing  the  hens'  nests,  pulling  up  the  corn, 
and  killing  the  young  chickens,  he  is  considered  as  an  outlaw,  and 
sentenced  to  destruction.  But  the  great  difficulty  is,  how  to  put 
this  sentence  in  execution.  In  vain  the  gunner  skulks  along  the 
hedges  and  fences ;  his  faithful  sentinels,  planted  on  some  com- 
manding point,  raise  the  alarm,  and  disappoint  vengeance  of  its 
object.  The  coast  again  clear,  he  returns  once  more  in  silence,  to 
finish  the  repast  he  had  begun.  Sometimes  he  approaches  the 
farm-house  by  stealth,  in  search  of  young  chickens,  which  he  is  in 


BIRDS.  67 

the  habit  of  snatching  off,  when  he  can  elude  the  vigilance  of  the 
mother  hen,  who  often  proves  too  formidable  for  him. 

The  crow  himself  sometimes  falls  a  prey  to  the  superior  strength 
and  rapacity  of  the  great  owl,  whose  weapons  of  offence  are  bv  far 
the  more  formidable  of  the  two. 

Towards  the  close  of  summer,  the  parent  crows,  with  their  new 
families,  forsaking  their  solitary  lodgings,  collect  together,  as  if  by 
previous  agreement,  when  evening  approaches.  About  an  hour 
before  sunset,  they  are  first  observed,  flying,  somewhat  in  Indian 
file,  in  one  direction,  at  a  short  height  above  the  tops  of  the  trees, 
silent  and  steady,  keeping  the  general  curvature  of  the  ground, 
continuing  to  pass  sometimes  till  after  sunset,  so  that  the  whole  line 
of  march  would  extend  for  many  miles.  This  circumstance,  so 
familiar  and  picturesque,  has  not  been  overlooked  by  the  poets,  in 
their  descriptions  of  a  rural  evening. 

Crows  form  large  roosts  and  dwell  in  them  in  immense  numbers. 
A  large  one  appears  to  be  the  grand  rendezvous,  or  head-quarters, 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  crows  within  forty  or  fifty  miles  of  the 
spot.  The  noise  created  by  these  multitudes,  both  in  their  evening 
assembly  and  reascension  in  the  morning,  and  the  depredations 
they  commit  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  a  great  resort,  are 
almost  incredible.  Whole  fields  of  corn  are  sometimes  laid  waste 
by  thousands  alighting  on  it  at  once,  with  appetites  whetted  by  the 
fast  of  the  preceding  night ;  and  the  utmost  vigilance  is  unavailing 
to  prevent,  at  le"ast,  a  partial  destruction  of  this  their  favorite  grain. 
Like  the  stragglers  of  an  immense,  undisciplined,  and  rapacious 
army,  they  spread  themselves  over  the  fields,  to  plunder  and  des- 
troy wherever  they  alight.  It  is  here  that  the  character  of  the 
crow  is  universally  execrated ;  and  to  say  to  the  man  who  has  lost 
his  crop  of  corn  by  these  birds,  that  crows  are  exceedingly  useful 
for  destroying  vermin,  would  be  as  consolatory  as  to  tell  him  who 
had  just  lost  his  house  and  furniture  by  the  flames,  that  fires  are 
excellent  for  destroying  bugs. 

So  universal  is  the  hatred  to  crows,  that  few  states  have  neg- 
lected to  offer  rewards  for  their  destruction.  In  the  United  States, 
they  have  been  repeatedly  ranked  in  our  laws  with  the  wolves,  the 
panthers,  foxes,  and  squirrels,  and  a  proportionable  premium  offered 
for  their  heads,  to  be  paid  by  any  justice  of  the  peace  to  whom 
they  are  delivered.  On  all  these  accounts,  various  modes  have 
been  invented  for  capturing  them.  They  have  been  taken  in  clap- 
nets, commonly  used  for  taking  pigeons ;  two  or  three  live  crows 


68  THE   PESTS   OF  THE  FARM. 

being  previously  procured  as  decoys,  or,  as  they  are  called,  stool- 
crows.  Corn  lias  been  steeped  in  a  strong  decoction  of  hellebore, 
which,  when  eaten  by  them,  produces  giddiness,  and  finally,  it  is 
said,  death.  Pieces  of  paper  formed  into  the  shape  of  a  hollow 
cone,  besmeared  within  with  birdlime,  and  a  grain  or  two  of  corn 
dropped  on  the  bottom,  have  also  been  adopted.  Numbers  of 
these  being  placed  on  the  ground,  where  corn  has  been  planted, 
the  crows  attempting  to  reach  the  grains,  are  instantly  hoodwinked, 
fly  directly  upwards  to  a  great  height ;  but  generally  descend  near 
the  spot  whence  they  rose,  and  are  easily  taken.  The  reeds  of  their 
roosting  places  are  sometimes  set  on  fire  during  a  dark  night,  and 
the  gunners  having  previously  posted  themselves  around,  the  crows 
rise  in  great  uproar,  and,  amidst  the  general  consternation,  by  the 
light  of  the  burnings,  hundreds  of  them  are  shot  down. 

Crows  have  been  employed  to  catch  crows,  by  the  following 
stratagem  : — A  live  crow  is  pinned  by  the  wings  down  to  the 
ground  on  his  back,  by  means  of  two  sharp,  forked  sticks.  Thus 
situated,  his  cries  are  loud  and  incessant,  particularly  if  any  other 
crows  are  within  view.  These,  sweeping  down  about  him,  are  in- 
stantly grappled  by  the  prostrate  prisoner,  by  the  same  instinctive 
impulse  that  urges  a  drowning  person  to  grasp  at  everything  within 
his  reach.  Having  disengaged  the  game  from  his  clutches,  the 
trap  is  again  ready  for  another  experiment ;  and  by  pinning  down 
each  captive,  successively,  as  soon  as  taken,  in  a  short  time  you  will 
probably  have  a  large  flock  screaming  above  you,  in  concert  with 
the  outrageous  prisoners  below.  Many  farmers,  however,  are  con- 
tent with  hanging  up  the  skins,  or  dead  carcasses,  of  crows  in  their 
corn-fields,  in  terrorem  ;  others  depend  altogether  on  the  gun,  keep- 
ing one  of  their  people  supplied  with  ammunition,  and  constantly 
on  the  look  out. 

The  habits  of  the  crow  in  his  native  state  are  so  generally  known 
as  to  require  little  further  illustration.  His  watchfulness,  and  jeal- 
ous sagacity  in  distinguishing  a  person  with  a  gun,  are  notorious 
to  every  one.  In  spring,  when  he  makes  his  appearance  among 
the  groves  and  low  thickets,  the  whole ^  feathered  songsters  are  in- 
stantly alarmed,  well  knowing  the  depredations  and  murders  he 
commits  on  their  nests,  eggs,  and  young.  Few  of  them,  however, 
have  the  courage  to  attack  fiim,  except  the  king  bird,  who,  on  these 
occasions,  teases  and  pursues  him  from  place  to  place,  diving  on  his 
back  while  high  in  the  air,  and  harassing  him  for  a  great  distance. 
A  single  pah*  of  these  noble-spirited  birds,  whose  nest  was  buili 


BIKDS.  69 

near,  have  been  known  to  protect  a  whole  field  of  corn  from  the 
depredations  of  the  crows,  not  permitting  one  to  approach  it. 

The  crow  is  eighteen  inches  and  a  naff  long,  and  three  feet  two 
inches  in  extent ;  the  general  color  is  a  shining  glossy  blue  black, 
with  purplish  reflections ;  the  throat  and  lower  parts  are  less 
glossy  ;  the  bill  and  legs,  a  shining  black,  the  former  two  inches 
and  a  quarter  long,  very  strong,  and  covered  at  the  base  with 
thick  tufts  of  recumbent  feathers  ;  the  wings,  when  shut,  reach 
within  an  inch  and  a  quarter  of  the  tip  of  the  tail,  which  is 
rounded ;  fourth  primary,  the  longest ;  secondaries  scolloped  at  the 
ends,  and  minutely  pointed,  by  the  prolongation  of  the  shaft;  iris, 
dark  hazel. 

The  female  differs  from  the  male  in  being  more  dull  colored,  and 
rather  deficient  in  the  glossy  and  purplish  tints  and  reflections. 
The  difference,  however,  is  not  great. 

Besides  grain,  insects,  and  carrion,  they  feed  on  frogs,  tadpoles, 
small  fish,  lizards,  and  shell  fish ;  with  the  latter  they  frequently 
mount  to  a  great  height,  dropping  them  on  the  rocks  below,  and 
descending  after  them  to  pick  up  the  contents.  Many  other  aquatic 
insects,  as  well  as  marine  plants,  furnish  them  with  food  ;  which 
accounts  for  their  being  so  generally  found,  and  so  numerous,  on 
the  sea  shore,  and  along  the  banks  of  our  large  rivers. 

THE  RAVEN. — The  raven  is  a  general  inhabitant  of  the  United 
States,  but  is  more  common  in  the  interior.  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact,  that  where  they  so  abound,  the  common  crow  seldom  makes 
its  appearance  ;  being  intimidated,  it  is  conjectured,  by  the  superior 
size  and  strength  of  the  former,  or  by  an  antipathy  which  the  two 
species  manifest  towards  each  other. 

The  food  of  this  species  is  dead  animal  matter  of  all  kinds,  not 
excepting  the  most  putrid  carrion,  which  it  devours  in  common 
with  the  vultures  ;  worms,  grubs,  reptiles,  and  shell  fish,  the  last  ot 
which,  in  the  mariner  of  the  crow,  it  drops  from  a  considerable 
height  in  the  air,  on  the  rocks,  in  order  to  break  the  shells  ;  it  is 
fond  of  bird's  eggs,  and  is  often  observed  sneaking  around  the 
farm-house  in  search  of  the  eggs  of  the  domestic  poultry,  which  it 
sucks  with  eagerness  ;  it  is  likewise  charged  with  destroying  young 
ducks  and  chickens,  and  lambs  which  have  been  yeaned  in  a  sickly 
state. 

The  raven  measures,  from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the  end  of  the 
tail,  twenty-six  inches,  and  is  four  feet  in  extent ;  the  bill  is  large 
and  strong,  of  a  shining  black,  notched  r.ear  the  tip,  and  three  in- 


70  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

ches  long ;  the  setaceous  feathers  which  cover  the  nostrils  extend 
half  its  length  ;  the  eyes  are  black ;  the  general  color  is  a  deep 
glossy  black,  with  steel-blue  reflections ;  the  lower  parts  are  less 
glossy  ;  the  tail  is  rounded,  and  extends  about  two  inches  beyond 
the  wings  ;  the  legs  are  two  inches  and  a  half  in  length,  and,  with 
the  feet,  are  strong  and  black  ;  the  claws  are  long. 

This  bird  is  said  to  attain  to  a  great  age  ;  and  its  plumage  to  be 
subject  to  change  from  the  influence  of  years  and  of  climate.  It 
is  found  in  Iceland  and  Greenland  entirely  white. 

The  raven  may  be  destroyed  in  several  of  the  many  ways  adopted 
to  kill  the  crow.  He  is  more  easily  shot  than  the  crow. 

OF  HAWKS  there  is  a  great  variety  in  America.  Those  only 
are  described  that  are  common  and  diffused  enough  to  be  generally 
troublesome. 

AMERICAN  SPARROW  HAWK. — This  bird  is  a  constant  resident 
in  almost  every  part  of  the  United  States,  particularly  in  the  states 
north  of  Maryland.  In  the  Southern  States  there  is  a  smaller 
species  found,  which  is  destitute  of  the  black  spots  on  the  head  ; 
the  legs  are  long  and  very  slender,  and  the  wings  light  blue. 

The  nest  of  this  species  is  usually  built  in  a  hollow  tree ;  gene- 
rally pretty  high  up,  where  the  top,  or  a  large  limb,  has  been 
broken  off.  The  female  generally  lays  four  or  five  eggs,  which  are 
of  a  light  brownish  yellow  color,  spotted  with  a  darker  tint ;  the 
young  are  fed  on  grasshoppers,  mice,  and  small  birds,  the  usual 
food  of  the  parents. 

The  habits  and  manners  of  this  bird  are  well  known.  It  flies 
rather  irregularly,  occasionally  suspending  itself  in  the  air,  hover- 
ing over  a  particular  spot  for  a  minute  or  two,  and  then  shooting 
off  in  another  direction.  It  perches  on  the  top  of  a  dead  tree  or 
pole,  in  the  middle  of  a  field  or  meadow,  and,  as  it  alights,  shuts 
its  long  wings  so  suddenly,  that  they  seem  instantly  to  disappear  ; 
it  sits  here  in  an  almost  perpendicular  position,  sometimes  for  an 
hour  at  a  time,  frequently  jerking  its  tail,  and  reconnoitring  the 
ground  below,  in  every  direction,  for  mice,  lizards,  <fec.  It  ap- 
proaches the  farm-house,  particularly  in  the  morning,  skulking 
about  the  barn-yard  for  mice  or  young  chickens.  It  frequently 
plunges  into  a  thicket  after  small  birds,  as  if  by  random,  but 
always  with  a  particular,  and  generally  a  fatal,  aim.  It  is  particu- 
larly fond  of  watching  along  hedge-rows,  and  in  orchards,  whero 
those  small  birds  usually  resort-  When  grasshoppers  are  plenty 
they  form  a  considerable  part  of  its  food. 


BIRDS.  71 

Though  small  snakes,  mice,  lizards,  &c.,  be  favorite  morsels  with 
this  active  bird,  yet  we  are  not  to  suppose  it  altogether  destitute  of 
delicacy  in  feeding.  It  will  seldom  or  never  eat  of  anything  that  it 
has  not  itself  killed,  and  even  that,  if  not  in  good  eating  order,  is 
sometimes  rejected. 

The  female  of  this  species  is  eleven  inches  long,  and  twenty- 
three  from  tip  to  tip  of  the  expanded  wings.  The  cere  and  legs 
are  yellow ;  bill,  blue,  tipped  with  black ;  space  round  the  eye, 
greenish  blue  ;  iris,  deep  dusky ;  head,  bluish  ash  ;  crown,  rufous  ; 
seven  spots  of  black  on  a  white  ground  surround  the  head  ;  whole 
upper  parts  reddish  bay,  transversely  streaked  with  black  ;  primary 
and  secondary  quills,  black,  spotted  on  their  inner  vanes  with 
brownish  white ;  whole  lower  parts,  yellowish  white,  marked  with 
longitudinal  streaks  of  brown,  except  the  chin,  vent,  and  femoral 
feathers,  which  are  white  ;  claws,  black. 

The  male  sparrow  hawk  measures  about  ten  inches  in  length, 
and  twenty-one  in  extent ;  the  whole  upper  parts  of  the  head  are 
of  a  fine  slate  blue,  the  shafts  of  the  plumage  being  black,  the 
crown  excepted,  which  is  marked  with  a  spot  of  bright  rufous ;  the 
slate  tapers  to  a  point  on  each  side  of  the  neck  ;  seven  black  spots 
surround  the  head,  as  in  the  female,  on  a  reddish  white  ground, 
which  also  borders  each  sloping  side  of  the  blue  ;  front,  lores,  line 
over  and  under  the  eye,  chin,  and  throat,  white ;  femoral  and  vent- 
feathers,  yellowish  white  ;  the  rest  of  the  lower  parts,  of  the  game 
tint,  each  feather  being  streaked  down  the  centre  with  a  long  black 
drop  ;  those  on  the  breast,  slender,  on  the  sides,  larger ;  upper  part 
of  the  back  and  scapulars,  deep  reddish  bay,  marked  with  ten  or 
twelve  tranverse  waves  of  black  ;  whole  wing-coverts  and  ends  of 
the  secondaries,  bright  slate,  spotted  with  black ;  primaries  and 
upper  half  of  the  secondaries,  black,  tipped  with  white,  and  spotted 
on  their  inner  vanes  with  the  same ;  lower  part  of  the  back,  the 
rump,  and  tail-coverts,  plain  bright  bay  ;  tail  rounded,  the  two  ex- 
terior feathers  white,  their  inner  vanes  beautifully  spotted  with 
black ;  the  next,  bright  bay,  with  a  broad  band  of  black  near  its 
end,  and  tipped  for  half  an  inch  with  yellowish  white ;  part  of  its 
lower  exterior  edge,  white,  spotted  with  black,  and  its  opposite  in- 
terior edge,  touched  with  white  ;  the  whole  of  the  others  are  very 
deep  red  bay,  with  a  single,  broad  band  of  black  near  the  end,  and 
tipped  with  yellowish  white ;  e^ro,  and  legs,  yellow  ;  orbits,  the 
same ;  bill,  light  blue ;  ins  of  the  eye,  dark,  almost  black  ; 
blue-black. 


72  THE   PESTS   OF  THE   FARM. 

RED -TAILED  HAWK. — This  species  inhabits  the  whole  United 
States,  and  is  not  migratory.  Among  extensive  meadows,  where 
flocks  of  larks,  and  where  mice  and  moles  are  in  great  abundance, 
many  individuals  of  this  hawk  spend  the  greater  part  of  the  winter. 
Others  prowl  around  the  plantations,  looking  out  for  vagrant 
chickens  ;  their  method  of  seizing  which  is,  by  sweeping  swiftly 
over  the  spot,  and,  grappling  them  with  their  talons,  bearing  them 
away  to  the  woods. 

The  red-tailed  hawk  is  twenty  inches  long,  and  three  feet  nine 
inches  in  extent ;  bill,  blue-black ;  cere,  and  sides  of  the  mouth, 
yellow,  tinged  with  green ;  lores,  and  spot  on  the  under  eyelid, 
white,  the  former  marked  with  fine,  radiating  hairs  ;  eyebrow,  or 
cartilage,  a  dull  eel-skin  color,  prominent,  projecting  over  the  eye  ; 
a  broad  streak  of  dark  brown  extends  from  the  sides  of  the  mouth 
backwards  ;  crown  and  hind  head,  dark  brown,  seamed  with  white, 
and  ferruginous  ;  sides  of  the  neck,  dull  ferruginous,  streaked  with 
brown;  eye,  large;  iris,  pale  amber;  back  and  shoulders,  deep 
brown ;  wings,  dusky,  barred  with  blackish  ;  ends  of  the  five  first 
primaries,  nearly  black  ;  scapulars,  barred  broadly  with  white  and 
brown  ;  sides  of  the  tail-coverts,  white,  barred  with  ferruginous, 
middle  ones  dark,  edged  with  rust ;  tail,  rounded,  extending  two 
inches  beyond  the  wings,  and  of  a  bright  red  brown,  with  a  single 
band  of  black  near  the  end,  and  tipped  with  brownish  white  ;  on 
some  of  the  lateral  feathers  are  slight  indications  of  the  remains  of 
other  narrow  bars  ;  lower  parts,  brownish  white  ;  the  breast,  fer- 
ruginous, streaked  with  dark  brown ;  across  the  belly,  a  band  of 
interrupted  spots  of  brown  ;  chin,  white  ;  femorals  and  vent,  pale 
brownish  white,  the  former  marked  with  a  few  minute  heart- 
shaped  spots  of  brown  ;  legs,  yellow,  feathered  half  way  below  the 
knees. 

The  gun,  or  traps  baited  with  mice,  toads,  &c.,  or  a  dead  fowl, 
are  the  proper  -means  to  destroy  hawks. 

OWLS. — There  is  a  great  variety  of  owls  all  ovw  America.  Some 
are  so  rare  as  to  be  of  no  account  as  pests  ;  others  are  common 
everywhere.  The  predacious  habits  of  all  are  the  same.  Those  that 
are  described  will,  as  far  as  evil  habits  are  concerned,  -epresent  the 
whole  variety. 

THE  BARRED  OWL. — This  is  one  of  our  most  common  owls. 
It  is  very  frequently  observed  flying  during  day,  and  certainly  sees 
more  distinctly  at  that  time  than  many  of  its  genus. 

These  birds  sometimes  seize  on  fowls,  partridges,  and  young  rab- 


BIliDS.  7J 

bits ;  mice  and  small  game  are,  however,  their  most  usual  food.  The 
difference  in  size  between  the  male  and  female  of  this  owl  is  extra* 
ordinary,  amounting  sometimes  to  nearly  eight  inches  in  the  length. 
Both  scream  during  day,  like  a  hawk. 


THE  OWL. 

The  male  barred  owl  measures  sixteen  inches  and  a  half  in 
length,  and  thirty-eight  inches  in  extent ;  upper  parts  a  pale  brown, 
marked  with  transverse  spots  of  white ;  wings  barred  with  alter- 
nate bands  of  pale  brown,  and  darker ;  head,  smooth,  very  large, 
mottled  with  transverse  touches  of  dark  brown,  pale  brown,  and 
white  ;  eyes,  large,  deep  blue,  tho  pupil  not  perceivable ;  face,  or 
radiated  circle  c  the  eyes,  gray,  surrounded  by  an  outline  of  brown 
4 


74  THE  PESTS  OF  THE   FARM. 

and  white  dots ;  bill,  yellow,  tinged  with  green ;  breast,  barred 
transversely  with  rows  of  brown  and  white  ;  belly,  streaked  longi- 
tudinally  with  long  stripes  of  brown,  on  a  yellowish  ground  ;  vent, 
plain  yellowish  white ;  thighs  and  feathered  legs,  the  same, 
slightly  pointed  with  brown  ;  toes,  nearly  covered  with  plumage  *, 
claws,  dark  horn  color,  very  sharp  ;  tail,  rounded,  and  remarkably 
concave  below,  barred  with  six  broad  bars  of  brown,  and  as  many 
narrow  ones  of  white ;  the  back  and  shoulders  have  a  cast  of  chest- 
nut ;  at  each  internal  angle  of  the  eye,  is  a  broad  spot  of  black  ; 
the  plumage  of  the  radiated  circle  round  the  eye  ends  in  long  black 
hairs  ;  and  the  bill  is  encompassed  by  others  of  a  longer  and  more 
bristly  kind.  These  probably  serve  to  guard  the  eye  when  any 
danger  approaches  it  in  sweeping  hastily  through  the  woods  ;  and 
those  usually  found  on  flycatchers  may  have  the  same  intention  to 
fulfill ;  for,  on  the  slightest  touch  of  the  point  of  any  of  these  hairs, 
the  nicitant  membrane  was  instantly  thrown  over  the  eye. 

The  female  is  twenty-two  inches  long,  and  four  feet  in  extent ; 
the  chief  ^difference  of  color  consists  in  her  wings  being  broadly 
spotted  with  white  ;  the  shoulder  being  a  plain  chocolate  brown  ; 
the  tail  extends  considerably  beyond  the  tips  of  the  wings  ;  the  bill 
is  much  larger,  and  of  a  more  golden  yellow  ;  iris  of  the  eye,  the 
same  as  that  of  the  male. 

LITTLE  OWL. — This  is  one  of  the  least  of  its  whole  genus ;  but, 
like  many  other  little  folks,  makes  up,  in  neatness  of  general  form 
and  appearance,  for  deficiency  of  size,  and  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
shapely  of  all  our  owls.  Nor  are  the  colors  and  markings  of  its 
plumage  inferior  in  simplicity  and  effect  to  most  others.  It  also 
possesses  an  eye  fully  equal  in  spirit  and  brilliancy  to  the  best  of 
them. 

This  species  is  a  general  and  constant  inhabitant  of  the  middle 
and  northern  states  ;  but  is  found  most  numerous  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  sea-shore,  and  among  woods  and  swamps  of  pine  trees. 
It  rarely  rambles  much  during  day ;  but,  if  disturbed,  flies  a  short 
way,  and  again  takes  shelter  from  the  light ;  at  the  approach  of 
twilight  it  is  all  life  and  activity,  being  a  noted  and  dextrous 
mouse-catcher. 

The  little  owl  is  seven  inches  and  a  half  long,  and  eighteen  in- 
ches in  extent ;  the  upper  parts  are  a  plain  brown  olive,  the  scapu- 
lars and  some  of  the  greater  and  lesser  coverts  being  spotted  with 
white  ;  the  first  five  primaries  are  crossed  obliquely  with  five  bars 
of  white ;  tail  Tounded,  rather  darker  than  the  body,  crossed  with 


BIRDS.  75 

two  rows  of  white  spots,  and  tipped  with  white;  whole  interior 
vanes  of  the  wings,  spotted  with  the  same  ;  auriculars,  yellowish 
brown  ;  crown,  upper  part  of  the  neck,  and  circle  surrounding  the 
ears,  beautifully  marked  with  numerous  points  of  white  on  an  olive 
brown  ground;  front,  pure  white,  ending  in  long  blackish  hairs ; 
at  the  internal  angle  of  the  eyes,  a  broad  spot  of  black  radiating 
outwards ;  irides,  pale  yellow ;  bill,  a  blackish  horn  color ;  lower 
parts,  streaked'with  yellow  ochre  and  reddish  bay ;  thighs,  and  fea- 
thered legs,  pale  buff;  toes,  covered  to  the  claws,  which  are  black, 
large,  and  sharp-pointed. 

RED  OWL. — This  is  another  of  our  nocturnal  wanderers,  well 
known  by  its  common  name,  the  little  screech  owl  j  and  noted  for 
its  melancholy  quivering  kind  of  wailing  in  the  evenings,  particu- 
larly towards  the  latter  part  of  summer  and  autumn,  near  the  farm- 
house. On  clear  moonlight  nights,  they  answer  each  other  from 
various  parts  of  the  fields  or  orchards;  roost  during  the  day  in 
thick  evergreens,  such  as  cedar,  pine,  or  juniper  trees,  and  are 
rarely  seen  abroad  in  sunshine.  In  May,  they  construct  their  nest 
in  the  hollow  of  a  tree,  often  in  the  orchard  in  an  old  apple  tree ; 
the  nest  is  composed  of  some  hay  and  a  few  feathers ;  the  eggs 
are  four,  pure  white,  and  nearly  round.  The  young  are  at  first 
covered  with  a  whitish  down. 

This  species  is  found  generally  over  the  United  States,  and  is 
not  migratory. 

The  red  owl  is  eight  inches  and  a  half  long,  and  twenty-one  in- 
ches in  extent ;  general  color  of  the  plumage  above,  a  bright  nut 
brown,  or  tawny  red ;  the  shafts,  black ;  exterior  edges  of  the 
outer  row  of  scapulars,  white  ;  bastard  wing,  the  five  first  primaries, 
and  three  or  four  of  the  first  greater  coverts,  all  spotted  with  white ; 
whole  wing-quills,  spotted  with  dusky  on  their  exterior  webs  ;  tail, 
rounded,  transversely  barred  with  dusky  and  pale  brown  ;  chin, 
breast,  and  sides,  bright  reddish  brown,  streaked  laterally  with 
black,  intermixed  with  white ;  belly  and  vent,  white,  spotted  with 
bright  brown ;  legs,  covered  to  the  claws  with  pale  brown  hairy 
down ;  extremities  of  the  toes  and  claws,  pale  bluish,  ending  in 
black ;  bill,  a  pale  bluish  horn  color ;  eyes,  vivid  yellow ;  inner 
angles  of  the  eyes,  eyebrows,  and  space  surrounding  the  bill, 
whitish  ;  rest  of  the  face,  nut  brown  ;  head,  horned  or  eared,  each 
horn  consisting  of  nine  or  ten  feathers  of  a  tawny  red,  shafted  with 
black. 

GREAT  HORNED  OWL. — This  noted  and  formidable  owl  is  found 


76  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

in  almost  every  quarter  of  the  United  States.  His  favorite  reu« 
dence,  however,  is  in  the  dark  solitudes  of  deep  swamps,  covered 
with  a  growth  of  gigantic  timber ;  and  here,  as  soon  as  evening 
draws  on,  and  mankind  retire  to  rest,  he  sends  forth  such  sounds 
as  seem  scarcely  to  belong  to  this  world,  startling  the  solitary  pil- 
grim as  he  slumbers  by  his  forest  fire,  "  making  night  hideous." 

It  preys  on  young  rabbits,  squirrels,  rats,  mice,  partridges,  and 
small  birds  of  various  kinds.  It  has  been  often  known  to  prowl 
about  the  farm-house,  and  carry  off  chickens  from  roost. 

The  owl  being  nocturnal,  is  not  easily  shot,  but  may  be  occasion- 
ally. He  may  be  taken  in  traps  baited  with  mice,  fowls,  or  any  ol 
his  usual  food. 


SECTION    III. 

INSECTS. 

IT  is  in  the  larva  state  that  the  ravages  of  insects  are  most  felt,  and 
this  requires  a  word  or  two  of  explanation. 

BUTTERFLIES,  MOTHS,  and  many  other  insects,  undergo  a  succes- 
sion of  changes,  or  transformations,  prior  to  their  assuming  their 
last  and  frequently  gorgeous  form,  under  which  we  see  them  flut- 
tering from  flower  to  flower.  Of  course,  I  speak  now  more  parti- 
cularly of  the  butterfly.  The  moths  are  usually,  though,  no  doubt, 
many  of  them  are  extremely  beautiful,  much  more  sober  in  their 
movements,  and  less  gaudy  in  their  plumage.  They  are,  also,  prin- 
cipally of  nocturnal  habits,  and  consequently  come  less  frequently, 
and  less  strikingly,  under  our  notice. 

The  female  moth  or  butterfly  deposits  an  egg,  which,  gradually 
ripening  to  maturity,  becomes,  a  maggot,  grub,  or  caterpillar.  This 
is  called  the  larva,  and  it  is  in  this  stage  that  the  insects  prove 
most  noxious  to  the  farmer's  crops.  These  larvse  are  excessively 
voracious,  and  their  ravages  terminate  only  with  their  next  trans- 
formation into  the  state  of  pupa,  or  chrysalis.  Prior  to  assuming 
this  state,  the  caterpillar  forsakes  its  food,  and  seeks  some  retired 
and  safe  retreat,  usually  burying  itself  for  this  purpose  under- 
ground. The  head  then  gradually  bends  forward,  and  the  face  is 
embraced  by  the  upper  or  thoracic  feet ;  the  body  likewise  becomes 
"jontracted  in  its  dimensions,  more  particularly  in  its  length,  and 


INSECTS.  77 

also  gradually  becomes  covered  with  a  firm  and  shell-like  coat  or 
case.  This  is  a  thickening  and  induration  of  the  skin  of  the  grub, 
not  of  the  epidermis  or  cuticle  ;  for  that  is  gradually  cast  as  a  slough, 
in  proportion  as  the  work  of  transformation  proceeds.  The  chry- 
salis is  soon  formed ;  some  insects  envelop  themselves  in  a  web,  as 
the  silkworm,  <fcc. ;  others  do  not.  During  this  stage,  the  insect  is, 
of  course,  perfectly  harmless.  In  course  of  time,  the  perfect  insect 
is  formed  within  its  shelly  sheath  ;  it  now  commences  the  work  of 
breaking  open  its  prison,  having  effected  which,  it  emerges  in  all 
the  beauty  of  insect  perfection. 

CATERPILLARS  do  not  prey  indiscriminately  on  all  sorts  of  herb- 
age or  farming  produce.  Each  species  has  its  favorite  plant,  or 
plants ;  and  not  even  starvation  will  induce  it  to  transgress  these 
limits  that  instinct  has  assigned  to  its  appetite,  or  eat  of  a  plant  of 
another  sort. 


THE    WIREWORM,  AND    PARENT   BEETLES,  MALE    AND    FEMALE. 

One  of  the  most  destructive  grubs  which  infests  the  fields  of  the 
agriculturist,  or  renders  futile  the  care  and  skill  of  the  gardener,  is, 
perhaps,  that  well-known  larva — the  WIREWORM.  I  may  here  ob- 
serve that  the  general  name  of  wireworm  is  given  to  the  larva  of 
many  species  of  beetle,  all,  however,  very  similar  in  habits  and  ap- 
pearance, and  so  equally  gifted  as  to  their  destructive  powers,  that 
it  would  be  difficult,  indeed,  to  draw  any  distinction  in  this  respect 
between  them. 

Scarcely  any  land  is  free  from  the  ravtges  of  some  one  or  other 
of  the  wireworms ;  and  there  is  scarcely  any  description  of  crop 
upon  which  they  will  not  prey  with  equal  greediness.  Wherever 
grass  or  any  sort  of  herbage  will  grow,  there  will  the  greedy 
wireworm  le  found.  The  beetles,  of  which  the  wireworms  are 
the  larvae,  <-:e  those  called  the  ELATERS  ;  also  spring-beetles,  skip- 


78  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

jacks,  and  click  or  snip-beetles,  from  the  power  they  possess  of 
springing-  up  with  a  click  or  snap-like  noise  when  placed  upon 
their  backs.  The  eggs  of  the  wireworm  are  very  minute,  and 
are  deposited  in  the  earth  at  the  root  of  the  young  plants.  When 
first  hatched  they  are  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  but  attain  nearly 
the  length  of  an  inch  when  full  grown,  and  in  this  state  of  larvse 
they  remain  for  nearly  five  years.  No  wonder,  therefore,  that,  be- 
tween their  longevity  and  rapacity,  they  should  be  deemed  by  far- 
mers so  very  pestilent  a  scourge.  During  the  continuance  of  their 
larva  state,  these  worms  cast  their  outer  skin  several  times,  being 
white  in  color,  and  very  tender  for  a  short  period  after  each  slough- 
ing ;  at  other  times  they  are  covered  with  a  hard  and  solid  coat  of 
a  horny  consistence,  so  firm  and  impenetrable  as  to  render  them 
proof  against  most  of  the  ordinary  remedies  that  might  be  used 
for  their  destruction. 

Wireworms  are  somewhat  more  than  half  an  inch  in  length,  and 
resemble  the  meal-worm  in  appearance,  but  are  more  angular,  less 
perfectly  cylindrical,  more  flattened  above  and  below.  Their  head 
is  horny  and  formed  for  perforation,  and  the  mouth,  though  small, 
is  furnished  with  a  most  effective  pair  of  very  powerful  jaws. 
There  are  six  feet  on  the  upper  portion  of  the  thorax,  and  one  at 
the  extremity  or  tail.  The  former  are  called  pectoral  or  thoracic, 
the  latter  anal. 

When  full-grown,  the  wireworm  buries  itself  in  the  ground, 
where  it  forms  a  cell,  in  which  it  becomes  a  chrysalis  or  pupa ; 
this  change  takes  place  early  in  ^autumn,  and  in  two  or  three  weeks 
at  farthest  it  becomes  a  beetle.  The  beetles  are  harmless,  feeding 
only  on  flowers ;  they  can  fly  well,  and  when  on  the  ground  can 
run  very  fast,  with  their  heads  down,  and  drop  when  approached. 
The  mouth  is  not  the  same  in  appearance  with  that  which  existed 
in  the  worm,  but  will,  on  examination,  be  found  to  be  formed  of 
the  same  organs,  only  perfected. 

There  are  two  species  of  beetle  that  produce  the  wireworm, 
more  common  in  grain-fields  than  the  rest,  and  therefore  the  more 
to  be  dreaded.  These  are :  the  elater  appressifrons,  and  the  elater 
obesus. 

The  bug  parent  is  familiarly  known  as  the  snapping  bug.  As 
before  said  the  worm  continues  five  years  before  its  transmutation 
to  the  perfect  insect  state,  during  which  time  it  feeds  on  the  roots 
of  wheat,  barley,  oats,  corn  and  grass.  Its  ravages  are  sometimes 
extensive  and  desolating. 


INSECTS.  79 

The  wireworms  usually  eat  into  the  stalks  just  about  the  roots, 
and  sometimes  separate  it  from  the  root  altogether  ;  they  seldom, 
however,  remain  so  long  engaged  upon  the  one  spot  or  portion  of 
stalk.  When  they  attack  potatoes,  they  penetrate  into  their  very 
hearts,  and  thus  frequently  wholly  destroy  the  seed  potatoes  when 
newly  planted;  to  obviate  which  it  has  been  recommended  to 
plant  whole  potatoes. 

Amongst  the  green  crops,  turnips  may  be  regarded  as  the 
greatest  sufferers,  and  the  tender  young  plants  are,  of  course,  most 
victimized  in  autumn.  Multitudes  of  these  ravenous  grubs  may 
then  be  found  gnawing  at  the  roots  of  the  young  turnips,  and 
even  biting  off  their  extremities.  They  also  frequently  attack  the 
stalk,  bite  it  across,  and  when  the  stems  fall,  attack  the  leaves. 
This  is,  however,  one  of  the  least  formidable  of  the  robberies  of 
this  persevering  pest,  and  if  the  wireworms  were  satisfied  with  the 
leaves  alone,  they  would  not  be  so  injurious. 

We  should  possess  some  acquaintance  with  the  natural  history  of 
such  animals  as  we  desire  to  destroy.  Such  knowledge  facilitates 
our  operations,  by  informing  us  of  their  haunts  and  habits,  of  their 
dispositions  and  predilections,  and,  consequently,  not  only  of  where 
we  are  to  seek  for  the  pests,  but  of  how  we  can  best  set  to  work 
to  accomplish  their  destruction.  Recollect,  I  may  remark,  in  pass- 
ing that  the  BEETLES,  whence  the  wireworms  are  produced,  are, 
although  not  necessarily  mischievous  themselves,  to  be  regarded  as 
the  grand  source  of  your  annoyances.  Let  it  be  your  care,  there- 
fore, to  have  these  caught  and  destroyed  ;  they  will  be  chiefly 
found,  during  spring  and  summer,  upon  nettles,  hemlock,  fools* 
parsley,  and  other  such  herbs.  Let  this  be  one  of  your  cares. 

The  eggs  are  chiefly  deposited  in  pastures  where  the  surface  has 
been  undisturbed,  and  in  clover  layers  and  fallows.  Where,  there- 
fore, they  make  their  appearance,  you  will  find  it  a  good  plan  to 
have  your  pasture  eaten  close  by  sheep.  Rolling,  in  early  spring,  is 
also  recommended,  and  is,  in  my  opinion,  very  likely  to  prove  ser- 
viceable, having  been  preceded  by  a  top-dressing  of  lime.  I  re- 
commend a  top-dressing  of  lime,  salt,  and  soot.  The  proportions 
recommended  are  as  follows  : — Lime,  2  parts  ;  soot,  3  parts  ;  salt, 
1  part.  The  salt  may  be  purchased  from  salt  works,  or  extensive 
dealers  in  that  article,  as  spoiled  salt — there  being  accidents  which 
will  render  it  unfit  for  market  as  salt,  without  at  all  militating  against 
its  value  as  manure,  or  a  top-dressing.  The  lime  should  be  quick- 
lime pounded,  ahc  the  mis4  ire  should  be  applied  to  the  land  as 


80  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FAEM. 

speedily  as  possible  after  having  been  compounded  :  be  it  also  re- 
membered that  this  composition  will  be  found  a  valuable  fertilizer, 
as  well  as  a  foe  to  insects  of  all  sorts.  Woad,  sweet  gale,  the  re- 
fuse of  gas-works,  spirits  of  tar,  chloride  of  lime,  nitrate  of  soda, 
mixed  with  the  manure,  will  be  found  very  serviceable ;  at  all 
events,  effecting  a  sensible  diminution  in  the  numbers  of  the  wire- 
worm,  and  of  course  a  diminution  of  their  ravages  in  an  equal 
ratio. 

The  wireworm  is  found  in  great  numbers,  generally  on  newly 
cultivated  grounds,  or  meadows,  which  have  been  long  in  repose ; 
they  can  be  conquered,  and  should  not  be  suffered  to  revel  on  the 
plants  of  industrious  farmers.  Exposure  to  the  frosts  of  winter 
will  destroy  them ;  therefore,  autumn  plowing  is  essential ;  and 
the  course  or  remedy  suggested  to  destroy  the  cutworm,  is  equally 
effective  on  the  wireworm. 

It  has  been  tried  to  destroy  the  wireworm  by  flooding,  but  this 
is  only  a  useless  attempt,  it  being  almost  impossible  to  drown  this 
creature,  which  will  be  found  as  lively  as  ever  after  a  total  immer- 
sion for  threej  or  even  four,  days  ;  still,  however,  such  flooding, 
though  it  will  not  destroy  the  worms,  interferes  with  the  laying  of 
the  beetles  which  produce  them,  and  will  consequently,  in  this 
point  of  view,  be  occasionally  found  useful. 

Soda  has  been  used  with  success.  I  have  known  soda  tried  by 
practical  men,  who  were  most  unwitting,  unless  actually  coerced 
into  it,  to  listen  to  any  novelty,  and  they  have  unanimously  asserted 
the  success  of  their  experiments  with  soda. 

Let  frogs  and  toads  be  encouraged  on  your  lands ;  their  entire 
food  consists  of  insects,  of  such  creatures  as  you  are  most  anxious 
to  destroy.  Call  them  in,  therefore,  to  your  assistance — protect 
them,  regard  them  as  your  friends  and  laborers,  and  they  will  aid 
you  most  extensively.  The  robin,  blackbird,  wagtail,  thrush,  to- 
gether with  poultry,  and  crows,  &c.,  feed  on  these  insects. 

IULES. — In  various  parts  of  the  country  the  iules  is  supposed 
to  be,  and  often  is  called,  the  wireworm ;  but  does  not  belong  to 
that  family  ;  a  sketch  of  the  iules  is  given  to  correct  this  erroneous 
belief.  Each  segment  of  the  body  is  furnished  with  two  pairs  of 
legs,  whereas  the  true  wireworm  has  but  six.  The  iules  also,  when 
disturbed  or  alarmed,  rolls  itself  into  a  coil  which  the  hardness  of 
the  wireworm  will  not  admit  of.  The  iules  is  perfect  in  itself,  and 
is  oviparous ;  the  wireworm  is  a  larva  and  cannot  produce  ovse 
.  until  its  transfer  nation  to  the  beetle  or  perfect  state.  The  iules 


INSECTS.  81 


THE  IULE8. 

consumes  vegetable  substances  in  a  state  of  decomposition ;  the 
wireworm  subsists  on  living  roots  in  healthful  vigor. 

MAY-BUGS. — Among  the  tree-beetles  those  commonly  called  dors, 
chafers,  May-bugs,  and  rose-bugs,  are  the  most  interesting  to  the 
farmer  and  gardener,  on  account  of  their  extensive  ravages,  both 
in  the  winged  and  larva  states.  Besides  the  leaves  of  fruit-trees, 
they  devour  those  of  various  forest-trees  and  shrubs,  with  an  avidity 
not  much  less  than  that  of  the  locust,  so  that,  in  certain  seasons, 
and  in  particular  districts,  they  become  an  oppressive  scourge,  and 
the  source  of  much  misery  to  the  inhabitants.  . 

The  May-beetle  is  our  common  species.  It  is  of  a  chestnut" 
brown  color,  smooth,  but  finely  punctured,  that  is,  covered  with 
little  impressed  dots,  as  if  pricked  with  the  point  of  a  needle ;  each 
wing-case  has  two  or  three  slightly  elevated  longitudinal  lines ;  the 
breast  is  clothed  with  yellowish  down.  The  knob  of  its  antennae 
contains  only  three  leaf-like  joints.  Its  average  length  is  nine-tenths 
of  an  inch.  In  its  perfect  state  it  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  trees,  par- 
ticularly on  those  of  the  cherry  tree.  It  flies  with  a  humming 
noise  in  the  night,  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  end  of  June,  and 
frequently  enters  houses,  attracted  by  the  light.  In  the  course  of 
the  spring,  these  beetles  are  often  thrown  from  the  earth  by  the 
spade  and  plow,  in  various  states  of  maturity,  some  being  soft 
and  nearly  white,  their  superabundant  juices  not  having  evaporated, 
while  others  exhibit  the  true  color  and  texture  of  the  perfect  insect. 
The  grubs  devour  the  roots  of  grass  and  of  other  plants,  and  in 
many  places  the  turf  may  be  turned  up  like  a  carpet  in  consequence 
of  the  destruction  of  the  roots.  The  grub  is  a  white  worm  witn  a 
brownish  head,  and,  when  fully  grown,  is  nearly  as  thick  as  the 
little  finger.  It  is  eaten  greedily  by  cro\vs  and  fowls.  The  beetles 
are  devoured  by  the  skunk,  whose  beneficial  foraging  is  detected  is 
4* 


62  THE   PESTS  OF  THE  FAKM. 

our  gardens  by  its  abundant  excrement  filled  with  the  wing-cases 
of  these  insects.  The  beetles  may  be  effectually  exterminated  by 
shaking  them  from  the  trees  every  evel  -ing.  The  best  time,  how- 
ever, for  shaking  trees  on  which  the  May-beetles  are  lodged,  is  in 
the  morning,  when  the  insects  do  not  attempt  to  fly.  They  are 
most  easily  collected  in  a  cloth  spread  under  the  trees  to  receive 
them  when  they  fall,  after  which,  they  should  be  thrown  into  boiling 
water,  to  kill  them,  and  may  then  be  given  as  food  to  swine. 


MAY-BUG. 


The  familiar  cock  chafer,  or  May-bug,  is  the  parent  of  the 
grub,  which  is  abundant  in  all  pastures  or  grass  fields,  especially 
in  soft  vegetable  soils.  The  grub  is  a  destructive  creature,  continu- 
ing its  devastations  for  a  period  of  three  summers  before  its  trans- 
formation. The  roots  of  all  grasses  and  grains  are  acceptable,  but 
"the  roots  of  Indian  corn  furnish  a  feast  from  which  they  will  not 
turn,  until  disturbed  by  the  crow,  who  is  too  often  unfairly  abused 
for  mischief  unknown  to  him. 

ROSE  BUGS. — For  some  time  after  they  were  first  noticed,  rose- 
bugs  appeared  to  be  confined  to  their  favorite,  the  blossoms  of  the 
rose  ;  but  within  thirty  years  they  have  prodigiously  increased  in 
number,  have  attacked  at  random  various  kinds  of  plants  in  swarms, 
and  have  become  notorious  for  their  extensive  and  deplorable  rava- 
ges. The  grape-vine  in  particular,  the  cherry,  plum,  and  apple 
trees,  have  annually  suffered  by  their  depredations ;  many  other 
fruit-trees  and  shrubs,  garden  vegetables  and  corn,  and  even  the 
trees  of  the  forest  and  the  grass  of  the  fields,  have  been  laid  under 
contribution  by  these  indiscriminate  feeders,  by  whom  leaves,  flow- 
ers, and  fruits  are  alike  consumed.  They  come  forth  from  the 
ground  during  the  second  week  in  June,  and  remain  from  thirty  to 
forty  days.  At  the  end  of  this  period  the  males  become  exhausted, 
fall  to  'the  ground,  and  perish,  while  the  females  enter  the  earth, 
lay  their  eggs,  return  to  the  surface,  and,  after  lingering  a  few  days, 
die  also.  The  eggs  laid  by  each  female  are  about  thirty  in  num- 
ber, and  are  deposited  from  one  to  four  inches  beneath  the  surface 


INSECTS.  83 

of  the  soil ;  they  are  nearly  globular,  whitish  and  about  one  thir- 
tieth of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  are  hatched  twenty  (.ays  afttr 
they  are  laid.  The  young  larvae  begin  to  feed  on  such  tetder  roots 
as  are  within  their  reach.  When  not  eating,  they  lie  upon  the 
side,  with  the  body  curved  so  that  the  head  and  tail  are  nearly  in 
contact ;  they  move  with  difficulty  on  a  level  surface,  and  are  con- 
tinually falling  over  on  one  side'  or  the  other.  They  attain  their 
full  size  in  the  autumn,  being  then  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long, 
and  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  are  of  a  yel- 
lowish white  color,  with  a  tinge  of  blue  towards  the  hinder  ex- 
tremity, which  is  thick  and  obtuse  or  rounded  ;  a  few  short  hairs 
are  scattered  on  the  surface  of  the  body  ;  there  are  six  short  legs, 
namely  a  pair  to  each  of  the  first  three  rings  behind  the  head ;  and 
the  latter  is  covered  with  a  horny  shell  of  a  pale  rust  color.  In 
October  they  descend  below  the  reach  of  frost,  and  pass  the  winter 
in  a  torpid  state.  In  the  spring  they  approach  towards  the  surface, 
and  each  one  forms  for  itself  a  little  cell  of  an  oval  shape,  by  turn- 
ing round  a  great  many  times,  so  as  to  compress  the  earth  and 
render  the  inside  of  the  cavity  hard  and  smooth.  Within  this  cell 
the  grub  is  transformed  to  a  pupa,  during  the  month  of  May,  by 
casting  off  its  skin,  which  is  pushed  downwards  in  folds  from  the 
head  to  the  tail.  The  pupa  has  somewhat  the  form  of  the  perfected 
beetle ;  but  it  is  of  a  yellowish  white  color,  and  its  short  stump-like 
wings,  its  antennae,  and  its  legs  are  folded  upon  the  breast,  and  its 
whole  body  is  enclosed  in  a  thin  film,  that  wraps  each  part  sepa- 
rately. During  the  month  of  June  this  filmy  skin  is  rent,  the  in- 
sluded  beetle  withdraws  from  it  its  body  and  its  limbs,  bursts  open 
its  earthen  cell,  and  digs  its  way  to  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Thus 
the  various  changes,  from  the  egg  to  the  full  development  of  the 
perfected  beetle,  are  completed  within  the  space  of  one  year. 

Such  being  the  metamorphoses  and  habits  of  these  insects,  it  is 
evident  that  we  cannot  attack  them  in  the  egg,  the  grub,  or  the 
pupa  state;  the  enemy,  in  these  stages,  is  beyond  our  reach. 
When  they  appear  as  bugs  they  must  be  crushed,  scalded,  or 
burned,  to  deprive  them  of  life,  for  they  are  not  affected  by  any  of 
the  applications  usually  found  destructive  to  other  insects.  Expe- 
rience has  proved  the  utility  of  gathering  them  by  hand,  or  of  sha- 
king them  or  brushing  them  from  the  plants  into  tin  vessels  con- 
taining a  little  water.  They  should  be  collected  daily  during  the 
period  of  their  visitation,  and  should  be  committed  to  the  flames, 
or  killed  by  scalding  water. 


84:  THE  PESTS   OF  THE  FARM. 

Our  insect-eating  birds  undoubtedly  devour  many  of  these  in- 
sects, and  deserve  to  be  cherished  and  protected  for  their  services. 
Rose-bugs  are  also  eaten  greedily  by  domesticated  fowls ;  and  when 
they  become  exhausted  and  fall  to  the  ground,  or  when  they  are 
about  to  lay  their  eggs,  they  are  destroyed  by  moles,  insects,  and 
other  animals,  which  lie  in  wait  to  seize  them. 

PEA  BUG. — In  the  spring  of  the  year  we  often  find,  among  seed- 
pease,  many  that  have  holes  in  them  ;  and,  if  the  pease  have  not 
been  exposed  to  the  light  and  air,  we  see  a  little  insect  peeping 
out  of  each  of  these  holes,  and  waiting  apparently  for  an  opportu- 
nity to  come  forth  and  make  its  escape.  If  we  turn  out  the  crea- 
ture from  its  cell,  we  perceive  it  to  be  a  small  oval  beetle,  rather 
more  than  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long,  of  a  rusty  black  color,  with  a 
white  spot  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  thorax,  four  or  five  white  dots 
behind  the  middle  of  each  wing-cover,  and  a  white  spot,  shaped 
like  the  letter  T,  on  the  exposed  extremity  of  the  body.  This  little 
insect  is  the  Eruchus  Pm'of  Linnaeus,  the  pea-Bruchus,  or  pea-wee- 
vil, but  is  better  known  in  America  by  the  incorrect  name  of  pea- 
bug.  The  original  meaning  of  the  word  Bruchus  is  a  devourer, 
and  the  insects  to  which  it  is  applied  well  deserve  this  name,  for, 
in  the  larva  state,  they  devour  the  interior  of  seeds,  often  leaving 
but  little  more  than  the  hull  untouched.  The  body  is  oval,  and 
slightly  convex  ;  the  head  is  bent  downwards,  so  that  the  broad 
muzzle,  when  the  insects  are  not  eating,  rests  upon  the  breast ;  the 
antennae  are  short,  straight,  and  saw-toothed  within,  and  are  in- 
serted close  to  a  deep  notch  in  each  of  the  eyes ;  the  feelers,  though 
very  small,  are  visible ;  the  wing-cases  do  not  cover  the  end  of  the 
abdomen ;  and  the  hindmost  thighs  are  very  thick,  and  often 
notched  or  toothed  on  the  under-side,  as  is  the  case  in  the  pea-wee- 
vil. These  beetles  frequent  the  leguminous  or  pod-bearing  plants, 
such  as  the  pea,  during  and  immediately  after  the  flowering  season ; 
they  pierce  the  tender  pods  of  these  plants,  and  commonly  lay  only 
one  egg  in  each  seed,  the  pulp  of  which  suffices  for  the  food  of  the 
little  maggot-like  grub  hatched  therein. 

When  the  pods  are  carefully  examined,  small,  discolored  spots 
may  be  seen  within  them,  each  one  corresponding  to  a  similar  spot 
on  the  opposite  pea.  If  this  spot  in  the  pea  be  opened,  a  minute 
whitish  grub,  destitute  of  feet,  will  be  found  therein.  It  is  the 
weevil  in  its  larva  form,  which  lives  upon  the  maiiow  of  the  pea, 
and  arrives  at  its  full  size  by  the  time  that  the  pea  becomes  dry, 
This  larva  or  grub  then  bores  a  round  hole  from  the  hcllow  in  ti 


INSECTS.  85 

centre  of  the  pea  quite  to  the  hull,  but  leaves  the  latter  and  gene- 
rally the  germ  of  the  future  sprout  untouched.  Hence  these  buggy 
pease,  as  they  are  called  by  seedsmen  and  gardeners,  will  frequently 
sprout  ai*.  d  grow  when  planted.  The  grub  is  changed  to  a  pupa 
within  its  hole  in  the  pea  in  the  autumn,  and  before  the  spring 
casts  its  skin  again,  becomes  a  beetle,  and  gnaws  a  hole  through 
the  thin  hull  in  order  to  make  its  escape  into  the  air,  which  fre- 
quently does  not  happen  before  the  pease  are  planted  for  an  early 
crop.  After  the  pea-vines  have  flowered,  and  while  the  pods  are 
young  and  tender,  and  the  pease  within  them  are  just  beginning  to 
swell,  the  beetles  gather  upon  them,  pierce  the  pods,  and  deposit 
their  tiny  eggs  in  the  punctures.  This  is  done  only  during  the 
night,  or  in  cloudy  weather.  Each  egg  is  always  placed  opposite 
to  a  pea ;  the  grubs,  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched,  penetrate  the 
pod  and  bury  themselves  in  the  pease ;  and  the  holes  through 
which  they  pass  are  so  fine  as  hardly  to  be  perceived,  and  are  soon 
closed.  Sometimes  every  pea  in  a  pod  will  be  found  to  contain  a 
weevil  grub ;  and  so  great  has  been  the  injury  to  the  .crop  in  some 
parts  of  the  country  that  the  inhabitants  have  been  obliged  to  give 
up  the  cultivation  of  this  vegetable.  These  insects  diminish  the 
weight  of  the  pease  in  which  they  lodge,  nearly  one-half,  and  their 
leavings  are  fit  only  for  the  food  of  swine.  This  occasions  a  great 
loss,  where  pease  are  raised  for  feeding  stock  or  for  family  use,  as 
they  are  in  many  places.  Those  persons,  who  eat  whole  pease  in 
the  winter  after  they  are  raised,  run  the  risk  of  eating  the  weevils 
also ;  but  if  the  pease  are  kept  till  they  are  a  year  old,  the  insects 
will  entirely  leave  them. 

One  remedy  consists  merely  in  keeping  seed-pease  in  tight  ves- 
sels over  one  year  before  planting  them,  or  putting  them,  just  be- 
fore they  are  to  be  planted,  into  hot  water  for  a  minute  or  two,  by 
which  means  the  weevils  will  be  killed,  and  the  sprouting  of  the 
pease  will  be  quickened.  The  insect  is  limited  to  a  certain  period 
for  depositing  its  eggs ;  late  sown  pease  therefore  escape  its  attacks. 
Those  sown  in  Pennsylvania  as  late  as  the  twentieth  of  May,  are 
entirely  free  from  weevils. 

THE  APPLE-WORM. — Among  the  insects,  that  have  been  brought 
to  America  with  other  productions  of  Europe,  may  be  mentioned 
the  apple-worm,  as  it  is  here  called,  which  has  become  naturalizeo 
wherever  the  apple-tree  has  been  introduced.  This  mischievous 
creature  has  sometimes  been  mistaken  for  the  plum-weevil  (Rhyn- 
Conotrwkelus  Nenuphar),  but  it  may  be  easily  distinguished 


86  THE   PESTS   OF  THE   FARM. 

therefrom  by  its  shape,  its  habits,  and  its  transformations.  Although 
the  plum-weevil  prefers  stone  fruit,  it  is  sometimes  found  in  apple; 
also.  On  the  other  hand,  the  apple-worm  has  never  been  found 
here  in  plums.  It  is  not  a  grub,  but  a  true  caterpillar,  belonging 
to  the  Tortrix  tribe,  and  in  due  time,  is  changed  to  a  moth,  called 
Carpocapsa  Pomonella,  the  codling-moth,  or  fruit-moth  of  the 
apple.  This  moth  is  the  most  beautiful  of  the  beautiful  tribe  to 
which  it  belongs  ;  yet,  from  its  habits  not  being  known,  it  is  seldom 
seen  in  the  moth  state  ;  and  the  apple-grower  knows  no  more  than 
the  man  in  the  moon  to  what  cause  he  is  indebted  for  his  worm- 
eaten  windfalls  in  the  stillest  weather. 


APPLE-MOTH. 

At  various  times,  between  the  middle  of  June  and  the  first  ol 
July,  the  apple- worm  moths  may  be  found.  They  are  sometimes 
seen  in  houses  in  the  evening,  trying  to  get  through  the  windows 
into  the  open  air,  having  been  brought  in  with  fruit  while  they  were 
in  the  caterpillar  state.  Their  fore-wings,  when  seen  at  a  distance, 
have  somewhat  the  appearance  of  brown  watered  silk ;  when  close- 
ly examined  they  will  be  found  to  be  crossed  by  numerous  gray 
and  brown  lines,  scalloped  like  the  plumage  of  a  bird  ;  and  near 
the  hind  angle  there  is  a  large,  oval,  dark  brown  spot,  the  edges  of 
which  are  of  a  bright  copper  color.  The  head  and  thorax  are  brown 
mingled  with  gray ;  and  the  hind-wings  and  abdomen  are  light 
yellowish  brown,  with  the  lustre  of  satin.  Its  wings  expand  three 
quarters  of  an  inch.  This  insect  is  readily  distinguished  from  other 
moths  by  the  large,  oval,  brown  spot,  edged  with  copper  color,  on 
the  hinder  margin  of  ea.h  of  the  fore-wings.  During  the  latte? 


INSECTS.  87 

part  of  June  and  the  month  of  July,  these  fruit-moths  fly  about 
apple  trees  every  evening,  and  lay  their  eggs  on  the  young  fruit. 
They  do  not  puncture  the  apples,  but  they  drop  their  eggs,  one  by 
one,  in  the  eye  or  hollow  at  the  blossom-end  of  the  fruit,  where  the 
skin  is  most  tender.  They  seem  also  to  seek  for  early  fruit  rather 
than  for  the  late  kinds,  which  we  find  are  not  so  apt  to  be  wormy 
as  the  thin-skinned  summer  apples.  The  eggs  begin  to  hatch  in  a 
few  days  after  they  are  laid,  and  the  little  apple-worms  or  cater- 
pillars produced  from  them  immediately  burrow  into  the  apples, 
making  their  way  gradually  from  the  eye  towards  the  core.  Com- 
monly only  one  worm  will  be  found  in  the  same  apple ;  and  it  is 
so  small  at  first,  that  its  presence  can  only  be  detected  by  the 
brownish  powder  it  throws  out  in  eating  its  way  through  the  eye. 
The  body  of  the  young  insect  is  of  a  whitish  color ;  its  head  is 
heart-shaped  and  black ;  the  top  of  the  first  ring  or  collar  and  of 
the  last  ring  is  also  black ;  and  there  are  eight  little  blackish  dots 
or  warts,  arranged  in  pairs,  on  each  of  the  other  rings.  As  it  grows 
older  its  body  becomes  flesh-colored ;  its  head,  the  collar,  and  the 
top  of  the  last  wing,  turn  brown,  and  the  dots  are  no  longer  to  be 
seen.  In  the  course  of  three  weeks,  or  a  little  more,  it  comes  to  its 
full  size,  and  meanwhile  has  burrowed  to  the  core  and  through  the 
apple  in  various  directions.  To  get  rid  of  the  refuse  fragments  of 
its  food,  it  gnaws  a  round  hole  through  the  side  of  the  apple,  and 
thrusts  them  out  of  the  opening.  Through  this  hole  also  the  in- 
sect makes  its  escape  after  the  apple  falls  to  the  ground  ;  and  the 
falling  of  the  fruit  is  well  known  to  be  hastened  by  the  injury  it 
has  received  within,  which  generally  causes  it  to  ripen  before  its 
time. 

Soon  after  the  half-grown  apples  drop,  and  sometimes  while  they 
are  still  hanging,  the  worms  leave  them  and  creep  into  chinks  in 
the  bark  of  the  trees  or  into  other  sheltered  places,  which  they  hol- 
low out  with  their  teeth  to  suit  their  shape.  Here  each  one  spins 
for  itself  a  cocoon  or  silken  case,  as  thin,  delicate,  and  white  as  tis- 
sue paper.  Most  of  the  insects  remain  in  their  cocoons  through 
the  winter,  and  are  not  changed  to  moths  till  the  following  summer. 
The  chrysalis  is  of  a  bright  mahogany-brown  color,  and  has,  as 
usual,  across  each  of  the  rings  of  its  hind  body,  two  rows  of  prickles, 
by  the  help  of  which  it  forces  its  way  through  the  cocoon  before 
the  moth  comes  forth. 

As  the  apple- worms  instinctively  leave  the  fruit  soon  after  it  falls 
from  the  trees,  it"  will  be  proper  to  gather  up  all  wind-fallen  appleg 


88  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

daily,  and  make  such  immediate  use  of  them  as  will  be  sure  to  till 
the  insects,  before  they  have  time  to  escape.  If  any  old  cloth  is 
wound  around  or  hung  in  the  crotches  of  the  trees,  the  apple- worms 
will  conceal  themselves  therein  ;  and  by  this  means  thousands  of 
them  may  be  obtained  and  destroyed,  from  the  time  when  they  first 
begin  to  leave  the  apples,  until  the  fruit  is  gathered.  By  carefully 
scraping  off  the  loose  and  rugged  bark  of  the  trees,  in  the  spring, 
many  chrysalids  will  be  destroyed  ;  and  it  has  been  said  that  the 
moths,  when  about  laying  their  eggs,  may  be  smothered  or  driven 
away,  by  the  smoke  of  weeds  burned  under  the  trees.  The  worms, 
often  found  in  summer  pears,  appear  to  be  the  same  as  those  that 
affect  apples,  and  are  to  be  kept  in  check  by  the  same  means. 


APPLE-TREE    BORER. 

APPLE  TREE  BORERS. — The  borers  of  the  apple  tree  have  become 
notorious  for  their  extensive  ravages.  They  are  the  larvae  of  a 
beetle  called  Saperda  Uvittata,  the  two-striped,  or  the  brown  and 
white  striped  Saperda ;  the  upper  side  of  its  body  being  marked 
with  two  longitudinal  white  stripes  between  three  of  a  light  brown 
color,  while  the  face,  the  antennae,  the  under-side  of  the  body,  and 
the  legs,  are  white.  This  beetle  varies  in  length  from  a  little  more 
than  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch.  It  comes  forth  from  the 
trunks  of  the  trees,  in  its  perfected  state,  early  in  June,  making  its 
escape  in  the  night,  during  which  time  only  it  uses  its  ample  wings 
in  going  from  tree  to  tree  in  search  of  companions  and  food.  In 
the  day-time  it  keeps  at  rest  among  the  leaves  of  the  plants  which 
it  devours.  Among  the  trees  and  shrubs  attacked  by  this  borer, 
are  the  apple  tree,  the  quince,  mountain-ash,  hawthorn,  and  other 
thorn  bushes.  In  June  and  July  the  eggs  are  deposited,  being  laid 
upon  the  bark  near  the  root,  during  the  night.  The  larvae  are 
fleshy  whitish  •  grubs,  nearly  cylind  rical,  and  tapering  a  little  from 
the  first  ring  to  the  end  of  the  body.  The  head  is  small,  horny, 
and  brown ;  the  first  ring  is  much  larger  than  the  others,  the  next 


INSECTS.  89 

Vwo  are  very  short,  and,  with  the  first,  are  covered  with  punctures 
and  very  minute  hairs ;  the  following  rings,  to  the  tenth  inclusive, 
are  each  furnished,  on  the  upper  and  under  side,  with  two  fleshy 
warts  situated  close  together,  and  destitute  of  the  little  rasp-like 
teeth,  ihat  are  usually  found  on  the  grubs  of  the  other  Capricorn- 
beetles  •  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  rings  are  very  short ;  no  appear- 
ance of  legs  can  be  seen,  even  with  a  magnifying  glass  of  high 
power.  The  grub,  with  its  strong  jaws,  cuts  a  cylindrical  passage 
through  the  bark,  and  pushes  its  castings  backwards  out  of  the  hole 
from  time  to  time,  while  it  bores  upwards  into  the  wood.  The 
larva  state  continues  two  or  three  years,  during  which  the  borer 
will  be  found  to  have  penetrated  eight  or  ten  inches  upwards  in 
the  trunk  of  the  tree,  its  burrow  at  the  end  approaching  to,  and 
being  covered  only  by,  the  bark.  Here  its  transformation  takes 
place.  The  final  change  occurs  about  the  first  of  June,  soon  after 
which,  the  beetle  gnaws  through  the  bark  that  covers  the  end  of  its 
burrow,  and  comes  out  of  its  place  of  confinement  in  the  night. 
Killing  it  by  a  wire  thrust  into  the  holes  it  has  made,  is  one  of  the 
oldest,  safest,  and  most  successful  methods.  Cutting  out  the  grub, 
with  a  knife  or  gouge,  is  the  most  common  practice ;  but  it  is 
feared  that  these  tools  have  sometimes  been  used  without  sufficient 
caution.  A  third  method,  which  has  more  than  once  been  sug- 
gested, consists  in  plugging  the  holes  with  soft  wood.  If  a  little 
camphor  be  previously  inserted,  this  practice  promises  to  be  more 
effectual ;  but  experiments  are  wanting  to  confirm  its  expediency. 

TURNIP  FLY  OR  BEETLE. — The  wavy-striped  flea-beetle,  Haltica 
vtriolata,  may  be  seen  in  great  abundance  on  the  horse-radish,  va- 
rious kinds  of  cresses,  and  on  the  mustard,  and  turnip,  early  in 
May,  and  indeed  at  other  times  throughout  the  summer.  It  is  very 
injurious  to  young  plants,  destroying  their  seed-leaves  as  soon  as 
the  latter  expand.  Should  it  multiply  to  any  extent,  it  may,  in 
time,  become  as  great  a  pest  as  the  European  turnip  flea-beetle, 
which  it  closely  resembles  in  its  appearance,  and  in  all  its  habits. 
It  is  considerably  less  than  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  length.  It  is 
of  a  polished  black  color,  with  a  broad  wavy  buff-colored  stripe  on 
each  wing-cover,  and  the  knees  and  feet  are  reddish  yellow.  Spe- 
cimens are  sometimes  found  having  two  buff-yellow  spots  on  each 
wing-cover  instead  of  the  wavy  stripe. 

In  England,  where  the  ravages  of  the  turnip  flea-beetle  have  at- 
tracted great  attention,  and  have  caused  many  and  various  experi- 
ments to  b?,  tried  with  a  view  of  checking  them,  it  is  thought  thai 


90  THE  PESTS   OF  THE   FARM. 

"  the  careful  and  systematic  use  of  lime  will  obviate,  in  a  great  de- 
gree, the  danger  which  has  been  experienced "  from  this  insect. 
From  this  and  other  statements  in  favor  of  the  use  of  lime,  there  is 
good  reason  to  hope  that  it  will  effectually  protect  plants  from  the 
various  kinds  of  flea-beetles,  if  dusted  over  them,  when  wet  with 
dew,  in  proper  season.  Watering  plants  with  alkaline  solutions,  it 
is  said,  will  kill  the  insects  without  injuring  the  plants.  The  solu- 
tion may  be  made  by  dissolving  one  pound  of  hard  soap  in  twelve 
gallons  of  the  soap-suds  left  after  washing.  This  mixture  should 
be  applied  twice  a  day  with  a  water-pot.  Kollar  very  highly  rec- 
ommends watering  or  wetting  the  leaves  of  plants  with  an  infusion 
or  tea  of  wormwood,  which  prevents  the  flea-beetles  from  touching 
them.  Perhaps  a  decoction  of  walnut-leaves  might  be  equally  ser- 
viceable. Great  numbers  of  the  beetles  may  be  caught  by  the  skil- 
ful use  of  a  deep  bag-net  of  muslin,  which  should  be  swept  over  the 
plants  infested  by  the  beetles,  after  which  the  latter  may  be  easily 
destroyed.  This  net  cannot  be  used  with  safety  to  catch  the  in- 
sects on  very  young  plants,  on  account  of  the  risk  of  bruising  or 
breaking  their  tender  leaves. 

POTATO  FLY. — Occasionally  potato-vines  are  very  much  infested 
by  two  or  three  kinds  of  Cantharides,  or  blistering  flies,  swarms 
of  which  attack  and  destroy  the  leaves  during  midsummer.  One 
of  these  kinds  has  thereby  obtained  the  name  of  the  potato-fly.  It 
is  the  Cantharis  vittata,  or  striped  Cantharis.  It  is  of  a  dull  tawny 
yellow  or  light  yellowish  red  color  above,  with  two  black  spots  on 
the  head,  and  two  black  stripes  on  the  thorax  and  on  each  of  the 
wing-covers.  The  under-side  of  the  body,  the  legs,  and  the  an- 
tennae are  black,  and  covered  with  a  grayish  down.  Its  length  is 
from  five  to  six  tenths  of  an  inch.  The  thorax  is  very  much  nar- 
rowed before,  and  the  wing-covers  are  long  and  narrow,  and  cover 
the  whole  of  the  back.  The  striped  Cantharis  is  comparatively  raro 
in  New  England  ;  but  in  the  Middle  States  it  often  appears  in  great 
numbers,  and  does  much  mischief  in  potato-fields  and  gardens,  eat- 
ing up  not  only  the  leaves  of  the  potato,  but  those  of  many  other 
vegetables. 

Another  kind  of  blistering  fly  is  the  ash-colored  Cantharis. 
When  the  insect  is  rubbed,  the  ash-colored  substance  comes  off, 
leaving  the  surface  black.  It  begins  to  appear  in  gardens  about 
the  twentieth  of  June,  and  is  very  fond  of  the  leaves  of  the  English 
bean,  which  it  sometimes  entirely  destroys.  It  is  also  occasionally 
found  in  considerable  numbers  on  potato-vines  ;  and  it  bas  repeat- 


INSECTS.  91 

edly  appeared  in  great  profusion  upon  the  honey-locust,  which  has 
been  entirely  stripped  of  foliage  by  these  voracious  insects.  In  the 
night,  and  in  rainy  weather,  they  descend  from  the  plants,  and 
burrow  in  the  ground,  or  under  leaves  and  tufts  of  grass.  Thither 
also  they  retire  for  shelter  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  being  most 
actively  engaged  in  eating  in  the  morning  and  evening.  About 
the  first  of  August  they  go  into  the  ground  and  lay  their  eggs,  and 
these  are  hatched  in  the  course  of  one  month.  The  larvaB  are  slen- 
der, somewhat  flattened  grubs,  of  a  yellowish  color,,  banded  with 
black,  with  a  small  reddish  head,  and  six  legs.  These  grubs  are 
very  active  in  their  motions,  and  appear  to  live  upon  fine  roots  in 
the  ground. 

About  the  middle  of  August,  and  during  the  rest  of  this  and  the 
following  month,  a  jet-black  Cantharis  may  be  seen  on  potato- 
vines,  and  also  on  the  blossoms  and  leaves  of  various  kinds  of 
golden-rod,  particularly  the  tall  golden-rod  (Solidago  altissima), 
which  seems  to  be  its  favorite  food.  In  some  places  it  is  as  plen- 
tiful in  potato  fields  as  the  striped  and  the  margined  Cantharis, 
and  by  its  serious  ravages  has  often  excited  attention.  These  three 
kinds,  in  fact,  are  often  confounded  under  the  common  name  of  po- 
tato-flies. These  insects  are  taken,  in  considerable  quantities,  by 
brushing  or  shaking  them  from  the  potato-vines  into  a  broad  tin 
pan,  from  which  they  are  emptied  into  a  covered  pail  containing 
a  little  water  in  it,  which,  by  wetting  their  wings,  prevents  their 
flying  out  when  the  pail  is  uncovered.  The  same  method  may 
be  employed  for  taking  the  other  kinds  of  Cantharides,  when  they 
become  troublesome  and  destructive  from  their  numbers ;  or  they 
may  be  caught  by  gently  sweeping  the  plants  they  frequent  with  a 
deep  muslin  bag-net.  They  should  be  killed  by  throwing  them 
into  scalding  water,  for  one  or  two  minutes,  after  which  they  may 
be  spread  out  on  sheets  of  paper  to  dry,  and  may  be  made  profit- 
able by  selling  them  to  the  apothecaries  for  medical  use. 

GRASSHOPPERS  AND  LOCUSTS. — Most  grasshoppers  are  of  a  green 
color,  and  are  furnished  with  wings  and  wing-covers,  the  latter  fre- 
quently resembling  the  leaves  of  trees,  upon  which,  indeed,  many 
of  these  insects  pass  the  greater  part  of  their  lives.  Their  leaf-like 
form  and  green  color  evidently  seem  to  have  been  designed  for  the 
better  concealment  of  these  insects.  They  commit  their  eggs  to 
the  earth,  dropping  them  into  holes  made  for  this  purpose  by  their 
piercers.  They  lay  a  large  number  of  eggs  at  a  time,  and  cover 
them  with  a  kind  of  varnish,  which,  when  dry,  forms  a  thin  film 


92  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

that  completely  encloses  them.  Their  eggs  are  laid  in  the  au.'umn, 
and  usually  are  not  hatched  till  the  following  spring.  They  are 
nocturnal  insects,  or  at  least  more  active  by  night  than  by  day. 
When  taken  between  the  fingers,  they  emit  from  their  mouths  a 
considerable  quantity  of  dark-colored  fluid,  as  do  also  the  locusts  or 
diurnal  grasshoppers.  They  devour  the  leaves  of  trees,  and  of  other 
plants,  and  lead  a  solitary  life,  or  at  least  do  not  associate  and  mi- 
grate from  place  to  place  in  great  swarms,  like  some  of  the  crickets 
and  the  locusts. 

LOCUSTS. — The  various  insects  included  under  the  name  of  locusts 
nearly  all  agree  in  having  their  wing-covers  rather  long  and  narrow, 
and  placed  obliquely  along  the  sides  of  the  body,  meeting,  and  even 
overlapping  for  a  short  distance,  at  their  upper  edges,  which  to- 
gether form  a  ridge  on  the  back  like  a  sloping  roof.  Their  antennae 
are  much  shorter  than  those  of  most  grasshoppers,  and  do  not 
taper  towards  the  end,  but  are  nearly  of  equal  thickness  at  both 
extremities.  Their  feet  have  really  only  three  joints  ;  but  as  the 
under-side  of  the  first  joint  is  marked  by  one  or  two  cross  lines, 
the  feet,  when  seen  only  from  below,  seem  to  be  four  or  five  jointed. 

Although,  the  ravages  of  locusts  in  America  are  not  followed  by 
such  serious  consequences  as  in  the  Eastern  continent,  yet  they  are 
sufficiently  formidable  to  have  attracted  attention,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  have  these  insects  laid  waste  considerable  tracts,  and  oc- 
casioned no  little  loss  to  the  cultivator  of  the  soil.  Our  salt-marshes, 
which,  are  accounted  among  the  most  productive  and  valuable  ot 
our  natural  meadows,  are  frequented  by  great  numbers  of  the  small 
red-legged  species  (Acrydiwn  femur-rubrum),  intermingled  occa- 
sionally with  some  larger  kinds.  These,  in  certain  seasons,  almost 
entirely  consume  the  grass  of  these  marshes,  from  whence  they 
then  take  their  course  to  the  uplands,  devouring,  in  their  way, 
grass,  corn,  and  vegetables,  till  checked  by  the  early  frosts,  or  by 
the  close  of  the  natural  term  of  their  existence.  When  a  scanty 
crop  of  hay  has  been  gathered  from  the  grounds  which  these  puny 
pests  have  ravaged,  it  becomes  so  tainted  with  the  putrescent  bodies 
of  the  dead  locusts  contained  in  it,  that  it  is  rejected  by  horses  and 
cattle.  In  this  country  locusts  are  not  distinguished  from  grass- 
hoppers, and  are  generally,  though  incorrectly,  comprehended  un- 
der the  same  name,  or  under  that  of  flying  grasshoppers.  They 
are,  however,  if  we  make  allowance  for  their  inferior  size,  quite  as 
voracious  and  injurious  to  vegetation  during  the  young  or  larva  and 
pupa  states,  when  they  are  not  provided  wrJi  wings,  as  they  are 


INSECTS.  93 

when  fully  grown.     During  dry  seasons,  they  often  appear  in  great 
multitudes,  and  are  the  greedy  destroyers  of  the  half-parched  her- 
bage.    In  many  parts  of  the  United  States  these  locusts  appear  in 
myriads,  and  their  devastations  in  dry  seasons  are  horrible.     The 
locusts  may  be  taken  by  means  of  a  piece  of  stout  cloth,  carried  by 
four  persons,  two  of  whom  draw  it  rapidly  along,  so  that  the  edge 
may  sweep  over  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  the  two  others  hold  up 
the  cloth  behind  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees.     This  contrivance 
seems  to  operate  somewhat  like  a  horse-rake,  in  gathering  the  in- 
sects into  winrows  or  heaps,  from  which  they  are  speedily  trans 
ferred  to  large  sacks.     When  these  insects  are  very  prevalent,  it 
will  be  advisable  to  mow  the  grass  early,  so  as  to  secure  a  crop  be- 
fore it  has  suffered  much  loss.     The  time  for  doing  this  will  be  de- 
termined by  the  period  when  the  most  destructive  species  come  to 
maturity  during  the  latter  part  of  July.     If  then,  the  meadows  are 
mowed  about  the  first  of  July,  the  locusts,  being  at  that  time  small 
and  not  provided  with  wings,  will  be  unable  to  migrate,  and  will 
consequently  perish  on  the  ground  for  the  want  of  food,  while  a 
tolerable  crop  of  hay  will  be  secured,  and  the  marshes  will  suffer 
less  from  the  insects  during  the  following  summer.     This,  like  all 
other  preventive  measures,  must  be  generally  adopted,  in  order  to 
prove  effectual ;  for  it  will  avail  a  farmer  but  little  to  take  preven- 
tive measures  on  his  own  land,  if  his  neighbors,  who  are  equally 
exposed  and  interested,  neglect  to  do  the  same.     Many  birds  de- 
vour them,  particularly  our  domestic  fowls,  which  eat  great  num- 
bers of  grasshoppers,  locusts,  and  even  crickets.     Young  turkeys,  if 
allowed  to  go  at  large  during  the  summer,  derive  nearly  the  whole 
of  their  subsistence  from  these  insects.     The  great  increase  of  these 
and  other  noxious  insects  may  fairly  be  attributed  to  the  extermi- 
nating war  which  has  wantonly  been  waged  upon  our  insect-eating 
birds,  and  we  may  expect  the  evil  to  increase  unless  these  little 
friends  of  the  farmer  are  protected,  or  left  undisturbed  to  multiply, 
and  follow  their  natural  habits.     Meanwhile,  some  advantage  may 
be  derived  from  encouraging  the  breed  of  our  domestic  fowls.     A 
flock  of  young  chickens  or  turkeys,  if  suffered  to  go  at  large  in  a 
garden,  while  the  mother  is  confined  within  their  sight  and  hear- 
ing, under  a  suitable  crate  or  cage,  will  devour  great  numbers  of 
destructive  insects ;  and  our  farmers  should  be  urged  to  pay  more 
attention  than  heretofore  to  the  rearing  of  chickens,  young  turkeys, 
and  ducks,  with  a  view  to  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  their  de- 
struction of  insects. 


94  THE  PESTS  OF  THE   FARM. 

PLANT  LICE. — The  Aphidians,  in  which  group  we  include  the 
insects  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  plant-lice,  differ  remark- 
ably from  all  the  foregoing  in  their  appearance,  their  formation,  and 
their  manner  of  increase.  Their  bodies  are  very  soft,  and  usually 
more  or  less  oval. 

Aphides,  or  plant-lice  as  they  are  usually  called,  are  among  the 
most  extraordinary  of  insects.  They  are  found  upon  almost  all 
parts  of  plants,  the  roots,  steins,  young  shoots,  buds,  and  leaves, 
and  there  is  scarcely  a  plant  which  does  not  harbor  one  or  two 
kinds  peculiar  to  itself.  They  are,  moreover,  exceedingly  prolific, 
for  one  individual,  in  five  generations,  may  become  the  progenitor 
of  nearly  six  thousand  millions  of  descendants.  It  often  happens 
that  the  succulent  extremities  and  stems  of  plants  will,  in  an  in- 
credibly short  space  of  time,  become  completely  coated  with  a  liv- 
ing mass  of  these  little  lice.  These  are  usually  wingless,  consisting 
of  the  young  and  of  the  females  only ;  for  winged  individuals  ap- 
pear only  at  particular  seasons,  usually  in  the  autumn,  but  some- 
times in  the  spring,  and  these  are  small  males  and  larger  females. 
After  pairing,  the  latter  lay  their  eggs  upon  or  near  the  leaf-buds 
of  the  plant  upon  which  they  live,  and,  together  with  the  males, 
soon  afterwards  perish. 

The  winged  plant-lice  provide  for  a  succession  of  their  race  by 
stocking  the  plants  with  eggs  in  the  autumn.  These  are  hatched 
in  due  time  in  the  spring,  and  the  young  lice  immediately  begin  to 
pump  up  sap  from  the  tender  leaves  and  shoots,  increase  rapidly  in 
size,  and  in  a  short  time  come  to  maturity.  In  this  state,  it  is  found 
that  the  brotxl,  without  a  single  exception,  consists  wholly  of  fe- 
males, which  are  wingless,  but  are  in  a  condition  immediately  to 
continue  their  kind.  Their  young,  however,  are  not  hatched  from 
eggs,  but  are  produced  alive,  and  each  female  may  be  the  mother 
of  fifteen  or  twenty  young  lice  in  the  course  of  a  single  day.  The 
plant-lice  of  this  second  generation  are  also  wingless  females,  which 
grow  up  and  have  their  young  in  due  time  ;  and  thus  brood  after 
brood  is  produced,  even  to  the  seventh  generation  or  more,  without 
the  appearance  or  intervention,  throughout  the  whole  season,  of  a 
single  male.  This  extraordinary  kind  of  propagation  ends  in  the 
autumn  with  the  birth  of  a  brood  of  males  and  females,  which  in 
due  time  acquire  wings  and  pair  ;  eggs  are  then  laid  by  these  fe- 
males, and  with  the  death  of  these  winged  individuals,  which  soon 
follows,  the  race  becomes  extinct  for  the  season. 

The  peach-tree  suffers  veiy  much  from  the  attacks  of  plant-lice, 


INSECTS.  95 

which  live  under  the  leaves,  causing  them  by  their  punctures  to 
become  thickened,  to  curl,  or  form  hollows  beneath,  and  corre- 
sponding crispy  and  reddish  swellings  above,  and  finally  to  perish 
and  drop  off  prematurely.  The  depredations  of  these  lice  is  one 
of  the  causes,  if  not  the  only  cause  of  the  peculiar  malady  affecting 
the  peach-tree  in  the  early  part  of  summer,  and  called  the  blight. 
Plant-lice  produce  a  blight  of  apple-trees  occasionally. 

The  injuries  occasioned  by  plant-lice  are  much  greater  than  would 
at  first  be  expected  from  the  small  size  and  extreme  weakness  of 
the  insects ;  but  these  make  up  by  their  numbers  what  they  want 
in  strength  individually,  and  thus  become  formidable  enemies  to 
vegetation.  By  their  punctures,  and  the  quantity  of  sap  which  they 
draw  from  the  leaves,  the  functions  of  these  important  organs  are 
deranged  or  interrupted,  the  food  of  the  plant,  which  is  there  elab- 
orated to  nourish  the  stem  and  mature  the  fruit,  is  withdrawn, 
before  it  can  reach  its  proper  destination,  or  is  contaminated  and 
left  in  a  state  unfitted  to  supply  the  wants  of  vegetation.  Plants 
are  differently  affected  by  these  insects.  Some  wither  and  cease 
to  grow,  their  leaves  and  stems  put  on  a  sickly  appearance,  and 
soon  die  from  exhaustion.  Others,  though  not  killed,  are  greatly 
impeded  in  their  growth,  and  their  tender  parts,  which  are  attacked, 
become  stunted,  curled,  or  warped.  The  punctures  of  these  lice 
seem  to  poison  some  plants,  and  affect  others  in  a  most  singular 
manner,  producing  warts  or  swellings,  which  are  sometimes  solid 
and  sometimes  hollow,  and  contain  in  their  interior  a  swarm  of  lice, 
the  descendants  of  a  single  individual,  whose  punctures  were  the 
original  cause  of  the  tumor. 

When  trees  are  infected,  scrape  off  all  the  rough  bark  of  the  in- 
fected trees,  and  make  them  perfectly  clean  and  smooth  early  in 
the  spring ;  then  rub  the  trunk  and  limbs  with  a  stiff  brush  wet 
with  a  solution  of  potash  as  hereafter  recommended  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  bark- lice ;  after  which  remove  the  sods  and  earth  around 
the  bottom  of  the  trunk,  and  with  the  scraper,  brush,  and  alkaline 
liquor  cleanse  that  part  as  far  as  the  roots  can  conveniently  be  un- 
covered. The  earth  and  sods  should  immediately  be  carried  away, 
fresh  loam  should  be  placed  around  the  roots,  and  all  cracks  and 
wounds  should  be  filled  with  grafting  cement  or  clay  mortar. 
Small  limbs  and  extremities  of  branches,  if  infected,  and  beyond 
reach  of  the  applications,  should  be  cut  off  and  burned. 

This  insect  is  mischievous  and  destructive  to  well  grown  and 
riper. mg  grass  plants ;  its  minute  character  has  allowed  it  to  escape 


96  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

the  notice  of  the  formers  generally,  until  recently,  when  its  ravages 
on  grass  fields,  reserved  for  hay,  have  exhibited  their  depreda- 
tions, brown  spots  or  areas,  the  herbage  having  been  destroyed  by 
these  voracious  creatures ;  these  minute  insects  are  countless  in 
number,  and  need  the  observance  and  study  of  every  carefu. 
farmer. 

BARK-LICE. — These  insects  vary  very  much  in  form  ;  some  of 
them  are  oval  and  slightly  convex  scales,  and  others  have  the  shape 
of  a  muscle ;  some  are  quite  convex,  and  either  formed  like  a  boat 
turned  bottom  upwards,  or  are  kidney  shaped,  or  globular.  They 
live  mostly  on  the  bark  of  the  stems  of  plants,  some  however,  are 
habitually  found  upon  leaves,  and  some  on  roots.  Early  in  the 
spring  the  bark-lice  are  found  apparently  torpid,  situated  longitu- 
dinally in  regard  to  the  branch,  the  head  upwards,  and  sticking  by 
their  flattened  inferior  surface  closely  to  the  bark.  On  attempting 
to  remove  them  they  are  generally  crushed,  and  there  issues  from 
the  body  a  dark  colored  fluid.  By  pricking  them  with  a  pin,  they 
can  be  made  to  quit  their  hold.  A  little  later  the  body  is  more 
swelled,  and,  on  carefully  raising  it  with  a  knife,  numerous  oblong 
eggs  will  be  discovered  beneath  it,  and  the  insect  appears  dried  up 
and  dead,  and  only  its  outer  skin  remains,  which  forms  a  convex 
cover  to  its  future  progeny.  Under  this  protecting  shield  the 
young  are  hatched,  and,  on  the  approach  of  warm  weather,  make 
their  escape  at  the  lower  end  of  the  shield,  which  is  either  slightly 
( I'vated  or  notched  at  this  part.  They  then  move  with  consider- 
able activity,  and  disperse  themselves  over  the  young  shoots  o 
leaves.  These  young  lice  insert  their  beaks  into  the  bark  or  leaves, 
•and  draw  from  the  cellular  substance  the  sap  that  nourishes  them. 
Young  apple  trees,  and  the  extremities  of  the  limbs  of  older  trees 
are  very  much  subject  to  the  attacks  of  a  small  species  of  bark- 
louse.  The  limbs  and  smooth  parts  of  the  trunks  are  sometimes 
completely  covered  with  these  insects,  and  present  a  very  singularly 
wrinkled  and  rough  appearance  from  the  bodies  which  are  crowded 
closely  together.  In  the  winter  these  insects  are  torpid,  and  appa- 
rently dead.  These  insects  have  now  become  extremely  common, 
and  infest  our  nurseries  and  young  trees  to  a  very  great  extent. 

The  best  application  for  the  destruction  of  the  lice  is  a  wash 
made  of  two  parts  of  soft  soap  and  eight  of  water,  with  which  is  to 
be  mixed  lime  enough  to  bring  it  to  the  consistence  of  thick  white- 
wash. This  is  to  be  put  upon  the  trunks  and  limbs  of  the  trees 
with  a  brush,  and  as  high  as  practicable,  so  as  to  cover  the  whole 


INSECTS.  97 

Burface,  and  fill  all  the  cracks  in  the  bark.  The  proper  time  for 
washing  over  the  trees  is  in  the  early  part  of  June,  when  the  in- 
sects are  young  and  tender.  These  insects  may  also  be  killed  by 
using  in  the  same  way  a  solution  of  two  pounds  of  potash  in  seven 
quarts  of  water,  or  a  pickle  consisting  of  a  quart  of  common  salt  in 
two  gallons  of  water. 

PEACH  TREE  BORER. — The  pernicious  borer,  which,  during  many 
years  past,  has  proved  very  destructive  to  peach-trees  throughout 
the  United  States,  is  a  species  of  ^Egeria,  named  exitiosa,  or  the  de- 
structive. The  eggs,  from  which  these  borers  are  hatched,  are  de- 
posited, in  the  course  of  the  summer,  upon  the  trunk  of  the  tree 
near  the  root ;  the  borers  penetrate  the  bark,  and  devour  the  inner 
bark  and  sap-wood.  The  seat  of  their  operations  is  known  by  the 
castings  and  gum  which  issue  from  the  holes  in  the  tree.  When 
these  borers  are  nearly  one  year  old,  they  make  their  cocoons  either 
under  the  bark  of  the  trunk  or  of  the  root,  or  in  the  earth  and  gum 
contiguous  to  the  base  of  the  trees ;  soon  afterwards  they  are  trans- 
formed to  chrysalids,  and  finally  come  forth  in  the  winged  state, 
and  lay  the  eggs  for  another  generation  of  borers.  The  last  trans- 
formation takes  place  from  June  to  October.  Hence  borers,  of  all 
sizes,  will  be  found  in  the  trees  throughout  the  year,  although  it 
seems  to  be  necessary  that  all  of  them,  whether  more  or  less  ad- 
vanced, should  pass  through  one  winter  before  they  appear  iu  the 
winged  state. 

As  a  remedy  remove  the  earth  around  the  base  of  the  tree, 
crush  and  destroy  the  cocoons  and  borers  which  may  be  found  in 
it,  and  under  the  bark,  cover  the  wounded  parts  with  common  clay 
composition  or  mortar,  and  surround  the  trunk  with  a  strip  of 
sheathing-paper  eight  or  nine  inches  wide,  which  should  extend 
two  inches  below  the  level  of  the  soil,  and  be  secured  with  strings 
of  matting  above.  Fresh  mortar  should  then  be  placed  around  the 
root,  so  as  to  confine  the  paper  and  prevent  access  beneath  it,  and 
the  remaining  cavity  may  be  filled  with  new  or  unexhausted  loam. 
This  operation  should  be  performed  in  the  spring  or  during  the 
month  of  June.  In  the  winter  the  strings  may  be  removed,  and 
in  the  following  spring  the  trees  should  again  be  examined  for  any 
borers  that  may  have  escaped  search  before,  and  the  protecting  ap- 
plications should  be  renewed. 
5 


98  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

CATERPILLARS. 

YELLOW  BEAR  CATERPILLAR. — Of  all  the  hairy  caterpillars  fre- 
quenting our  gardens,  there  are  none  so  common  and  troublesome 
in  the  Northern  States  as  that  called  the  yellow  bear  by  Harris. 
Like  most  of  its  genus  it  is  a  very  general  feeder,  devouring  almost 
all  kinds  of  herbaceous  plants,  with  equal  relish,  from  the  broad- 
leaved  plantain  at  the  door-side,  the  peas,  beans,  and  even  tho 
flowers  of  the  garden,  and  the  corn  and  coarse  grasses  of  the  fields, 
to  the  leaves  of  the  vine,  the  currant,  and  the  gooseberry,  which  it 
does  not  refuse  when  pressed  by  hunger.  This  kind  of  caterpillar 
varies  very  much  in  its  colors ;  it  is  perhaps  most  often  of  a  pale 
yellow  or  straw  color,  with  a  black  line  along  each  side  of  the  body, 
and  a  transverse  line  of  the  same  color  between  each  of  the  seg- 
ments or  rings,  and  it  is  covered  with  long  pale  yellow  hairs. 
Others  are  often  seen  of  a  rusty  or  brownish  yellow  color,  with  the 
same  black  lines  on  the  sides  and  between  the  rings,  and  they  are 
clothed  with  foxy  red  or  light  brown  hairs.  The  head  and  ends  of 
the  feet  are  ochre-yellow,  and  the  under-side  of  the  body  is  blackish 
in  all  the  varieties.  They  are  to  be  found  of  different  ages  and 
sizes  from  the  first  of  June  till  October.  When  fully  grown  they 
are  about  two  inches  long,  and  then  creep  into  some  convenient 
place  of  shelter,  make  their  cocoons,  in  which  they  remain  in  the 
chrysalis  state  during  the  winter,  and  are  changed  to  moths  in  the 
months  of  May  or  June  following.  Some  of  the  first  broods  of 
these  caterpillars  appear  to  come  to  their  growth  early  in  summer, 
and  are  transformed  to  moths  by  the  end  of  July  or  the  beginning 
of  August,  at  which  time  I  have  repeatedly  taken  them  in  the 
winged  state  ;  but  the  greater  part  pass  through  their  last  change 
in  June.  The  moth  is  familiarly  known  by  the  name  of  the  whito 
miller,  and  is  often  seen  about  houses.  Its  scientific  name  is  Arc- 
tm  Virginica.  It  is  white,  with  a  black  point  on  the  middle  of  the 
fore-wings,  and  two  black  dots  on  the  hind-wings,  one  on  the  mid- 
dle and  the  other  near  the  posterior  angle,  much  more  distinct  on 
the  under  than  on  the  upper  side ;  there  is  a  row  of  black  dots  on 
the  top  of  the  back,  another  on  each  side,  and  between  these  a  lon- 
gitudinal deep  yellow  stripe  ;  the  hips  and  thighs  of  tL>.  fore-legs 
are  also  ochre-yellow.  It  expands  from  one  inch  and  a;-:alfto  two 
inches.  Pick  off  the  caterpillars  from  day  to  day  and  crush  them, 
and  do  not  spare  "the  pretty  white  millers,"  frequently  found  on 
the  fences,  or  on  the  plants,  laying  their  golden  yellow  eggs. 


INSECTS.  99 

THE  SALT-MARSH  CATERPILLAR,  an  insect  by  far  too  well  kncwn 
on  our  sea-board,  and  now  getting  to  be  common  in  the  interior, 
closely  resembles  the  yellow  bear  in  some  of  its  varieties.  These 
appear  toward  the  end  of  June,  and  grow  rapidly  from  that  time 
till  the  first  of  August.  During  this  month  they  come  to  their  full 
size,  and  begin  to  run,  as  the  phrase  is,  or  retreat  from  the  marshes, 
and  disperse  through  the  adjacent  uplands,  often  committing  very 
extensive  ravages  in  their  progress.  Corn-fields,  gardens,  and  even 
the  rank  weeds  by  the  way-side  afford  them  temporary  nourish- 
ment while  wandering  in  search  of  a  place  of  security  from  the  tide 
and  weather.  They  conceal  themselves  in  walls,  under  stones,  in 
hay-stacks  anc1  mows,  in  wood-piles,  and  in  any  other  places  in  their 
way,  which  will  afford  them  the  proper  degree  of  shelter  during 
the  winter.  Here  they  make  their  coarse  hairy  cocoons,  and  change 
to  chrysalids,  in  whHi  form  they  remain  till  the  folio  wing  summer, 
and  are  transformed  to  moths  in  the  month  of  June.  In  those 
cases  where,  from  any  cause,  the  caterpillars,  when  arrived  at  ma- 
turity, have  been  unable  to  leave  the  marshes,  they  conceal  them- 
selves beneath  the  stubble,  and  there  make  their  cocoons.  Such, 
for  the  most  part,  is  the  course  and  duration  of  the  lives  of  these 
insects  in  the  Northern  States ;  but  in  the  Middle  and  Southern 
States  two  broods  are  brought  to  perfection  annually ;  and  even 
here  some  of  them  run  through  their  course  sooner,  and  produce  a 
second  brood  of  caterpillars  in  the  same  season.  The  full-grown 
caterpillar  measures  one  inch  and  three  quarters  or  more  in  length. 
It  is  clothed  with  long  hairs,  which  are  sometimes  black  and  some- 
times brown  on  the  back  and  forepart  of  the  body,  and  of  a  lighter 
brown  color  on  the  sides.  The  hairs  grow  in  spreading  clusters 
from  warts,  which  are  of  a  yellowish  color  in  this  species.  The 
body,  when  stripped  of  the  hairs,  is  yellow,  shaded  at  the  sides 
with  black,  and  there  is  a  blackish  line  extending  along  the  top  of 
the  back.  The  breathing-holes  are  white,  and  very  distinct  even 
through  the  hairs.  These  caterpillars,  when  feeding  on  the  marshes, 
are  sometimes  overtaken  by  the  tide,  and  when  escape  becomes  im 
possible,  they  roll  themselves  up  in  a  circular  form,  and  abandon 
themselves  to  their  fate.  The  hairs  on  their  bodies  seem  to  have  a 
repelling  power,  and  prevent  the  water  from  wetting  their  skins,  so 
that  they  float  on  the  surface,  and  are  often  carried  by  the  waves 
to  distant  places,  where  they  are  thrown  on  shore,  and  left  in  win- 
rows  with  the  wash  of  the  sea.  After  a  little  time  most  of  them 
tecover  from  their  half-drowned  condition,  and  begin  their  depre- 


100  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

dations  anew.  In  this  way  these  insects  seem  to  have  spread  from 
the  places  where  they  first  appeared  to  others  at  a  considerable 
distance. 

In  order  to  lessen  the  ravages  of  the  salt-marsh  caterpillars,  and 
to  secure  a  fair  crop  of  hay  when  these  insects  abound,  the  marshes 
should  be  mowed  early  in  July,  at  which  time  the  caterpillars  are 
small  and  feeble,  and  being  unable  to  wander  far,  will  die  before 
the  crop  is  gathered  in.  In  defence  of  early  mowing,  it  may  be 
said  that  it  is  the  only  way  by  which  the  grass  may  be  saved  in 
those  meadows  where  the  caterpillars  have  multiplied  to  any  ex- 
tent ;  and,  if  the  practice  is  followed  generally,  and  continued  du- 
ring several  years  in  succession, 'it  will  do  much  towards  extermi- 
nating these  destructive  insects.  By  the  practice  of  late  mowing, 
where  the  caterpillars  abound,  a  great  loss  in  the  crop  will  be  sus- 
tained, immense  numbers  of  caterpillars  and  grasshoppers  will  be 
left  to  grow  to  maturity  and  disperse  upon  the  uplands,  by  which 
means  the  evil  will  go  on  increasing  from  year  to  year  ;  or  they 
will  be  brought  in  with  the  hay  to  perish  in  our  barns  and  stacks, 
where  their  dead  bodies  will  prove  offensive  to  the  cattle,  and  occa- 
sion a  waste  of  fodder.  To  get  rid  of  "  the  old  fog  "  or  stubble, 
which  becomes  much  thicker  and  longer  in  consequence  of  early 
mowing,  the  marshes  should  be  burnt  over  in  March.  The  roots 
of  the  grass  will  not  be  injured  by  burning  the  stubble,  on  the  con- 
trary they  will  be  fertilized  by  the  ashes  ;  while  great  numbers  of 
young  grasshoppers,  cocoons  of  caterpillars,  and  various  kinds  of 
destructive  insects,  with  their  eggs,  concealed  in  the  stubble,  will 
be  destroyed  by  the  fire.  In  the  Province  of  New  Brunswick,  the 
benefit  arising  from  burning  the  stubble  has  long  been  proved. 

Of  the  caterpillars  which  devour  the  leaves  of  trees,  the  most 
common  and  destructive  are  the  little  caterpillars  known  by  the 
name  of  fall  web-worms,  whose  large  webs,  sometimes  extending 
over  entire  branches  with  their  leaves,  may  be  seen  on  our  native 
elms,  and  also  on  apple  and  other  fruit  trees,  in  the  latter  part  of 
summer.  The  eggs,  from  which  these  caterpillars  proceed,  are  laid 
by  the  parent  moth  in  a  cluster  upon  a  leaf  near  the  extremity  of  a 
branch ;  they  are  hatched  from  the  last  of  June  till  the  middle  of 
August,  some  broods  being  early  and  others  "ate,  and  the  young 
caterpillars  immediately  begin  to  provide  a  slelter  for  themselves, 
by  covering  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf  with  a  web,  which  is  the 
result  of  the  united  labors  of  the  whole  brood.  They  feed  in  com- 
pany beneath  this  web,  devouring  only  the  upper  skin  and  pulpy 


INSECTS.  101 

portion  of  the  leaf,  leaving  the  veins  and  lower  skin  of  the  leaf  un- 
touched. As  they  increase  in  size,  they  enlarge  their  web,  carry- 
ing it  over  the  next  lower  leaves,  all  the  upper  and  pulpy  parts  of 
which  are  eaten  in  the  same  way,  and  thus  they  continue  to  work 
downwards,  till  finally  the  web  covers  a  large  portion  of  the  branch, 
with  its  dry,  brown,  and  filmy  foliage,  reduced  to  this  unseemly 
condition  by  these  little  spoilers.  These  catei  pillars  when  fully 
grown,  measure  rather  more  than  one  inch  in  length  ;  their  bodies 
are  slender  and  are  very  thinly  clothed  with  hairs  of  a  grayish  color, 
intermingled  with  a  few  which  are  black.  The  general  color  of  the 
body  is  greenish  yellow  dotted  with  black ;  there  is  a  broad  black- 
ish stripe  along  the  top  of  the  back,  and  a  bright  yellow  stripe  on 
each  side.  The  warts,  from  which  the  thin  bundles  of  spreading, 
silky  hairs  proceed,  are  black  on  the  back,  and  rust-yellow  or  orange 
on  the  sides.  The  head  and  feet  are  black.  Towards  the  end  of 
August  and  during  the  month  of  September  they  leave  the  trees, 
disperse,  and  wander  about,  eating  such  plants  as  happen  to  lie  in. 
their  course,  till  they  have  found  suitable  places  for  shelter  and  con- 
cealment where  they  make  their  thin  and  almost  transparent  co- 
coons, composed  of  a  slight  web  of  silk  intermingled  with  a  few 
hairs.  They  remain  in  the  cocoons  in  the  chrysalis  state  through 
the  winter,  and  are  transformed  to  moths  in  the  months  of  June 
and  July.  These  moths  are  white,  and  without  spots ;  the  fore- 
thighs  are  tawny-yellow,  and  the  feet  blackish.  Their  wings  ex- 
pand from  one  inch  and  a  quarter  to  one  inch  and  three  eighths. 
Their  antennae  and  feelers  do  not  differ  essentially  from  those  of  tha 
majority  of  the  Arctians,  the  former  in  the  males  being  doubly 
feathered  beneath,  and  those  of  the  females  having  two  rows  of  mi- 
nute teeth  on  the  under-side.  The  only  time  in  which  we  can  at- 
tempt to  exterminate  these  destructive  insects  with  any  prospect  of 
success,  is  when  they  are  young  and  just  beginning  to  make  their 
webs  on  the  trees.  .  So  soon,  then,  as  the  webs  begin  to  appear  on 
the  extremities  of  the  branches,  they  should  be  stripped  off,  with 
the  few  leaves  which  they  cover,  and  the  caterpillars  contained 
therein,  at  one  grasp,  and  should  be  crashed  under  foot. 

APPLE-TREE  CATERPILLARS. — During  the  months  of  July  and 
August,  there  may  be  found  on  apple-trees  and  rose-bushes  little 
slender  caterpillars  of  a  bright  yellow  color,  sparingly  clothed  with 
long  and  fine  yellow  hairs  on  the  sides  of  the  body,  and  having 
four  short  and  thick  brush-like  yellowish  tufts  on  the  back,  that  is 
on  the  fourth  and  three  following  rings,  two  long  black  plumes  or 


102  THE  PESTS  OF  THE   FARM. 

pencils  extending  forwards  from  the  first  ring,  and  a  single  plL  »s 
on  the  top  of  the  eleventh  ring.  The  head,  and  the  two  little  re- 
tractile warts  on  the  ninth  and  tenth  rings  are  coral  red ;  there  is 
a  narrow  black  or  brownish  stripe  along  the  top  of  the  back,  ;ind 
a  wider  dusky  stripe  on  each  side  of  the  body.  These  pretty  cat- 
erpillars do  not  ordinarily  herd  together,  but  sometimes  our  apple- 
trees  are  much  infested  by  them.  When  they  have  done  eating, 
they  spin  their  cocoons  on  the  leaves,  or  on  the  branches  or  trunks 
of  the  trees,  or  on  fences  in  the  vicinity.  The  chrysalis  is  not  only 
beset  with  little  hairs  or  down,  but  has  three  oval  clusters  of  branny 
scales  on  the  back.  In  about  eleven  days  after  the  change  to  the 
chrysalis  is  effected,  the  last  transformation  follows,  and  the  insects 
come  forth  in  the  adult  state,  the  females  wingless,  and  the  males 
with  large  ashen-gray  wings,  crossed  by  wavy  darker  bands  on  the 
upper  pair,  on  which,  moreover,  is  a  small  black  spot  near  the  tip, 
and  a  minute  white  crescent  near  the  outer  hind  angle.  The  body 
of  the  male  is  small  and  slender,  with  a  row  of  little  tufts  along 
the  back,  and  the  wings  expand  one  inch  and  three  eighths.  The 
females  are  of  a  lighter  gray  color  than  the  males,  their  bodies  are 
very  thick,  and  of  an  oblong  oval  shape,  and,  though  seemingly 
wingless,  upon  close  examination  two  little  scales,  or  stinted  wing- 
lets,  can  be  discovered  on  each  shoulder.  These  females  lay  their 
eggs  upon  the  top  of  their  cocoons,  and  cover  them  with  a  large 
quantity  of  frothy  matter,  which  on  drying  becomes  white  and 
brittle.  Different  broods  of  these  insects  appear  at  various  times  in 
the  course  of  the  summer,  but  the  greater  number  come  to  matu- 
rity and  lay  their  eggs  in  the  latter  part  of  August,  and  the  begin- 
ning of  September  ;  and  these  eggs  are  not  hatched  till  the  follow- 
ing summer.  The  name  of  this  moth  is  Orgyia  leucostigma,  the 
white-marked  Orgyia  or  tussock-moth.  In  Hovey's  Gardener's 
Magazine  Mr.  Ives  states,  that  on  passing  through  an  apple  orchard 
in  February,  he  "  perceived  nearly  all  the  trees  speckled  with  occa- 
sional dead  leaves,  adhering  so  firmly  to  the  brarches  as  to  require 
considerable  force  to  dislodge  them.  Each  le**f  covered  a  small 
patch  of  from  one  to  two  hundred  eggs,  united  together,  as  well  as 
to  the  leaf,  by  a  gummy  and  silken  fibre,  peculiar  to  the  moth." 
In  March  he  "visited  the  same  orchard,  and,  as  an  experiment, 
cleared  three  trees,  from  which  he  took  twenty-one  bunches  of  eggs. 
The  remainder  of  the  trees  he  left  untouched  until  the  tenth  of  May, 
when  he  found  the  caterpillars  were  hatred  from  the  eggs,  and  had 
commenced  their  slow  but  sure  ravages.  He  watched  them  from 


INSECTS.  103 

time  to  time,  until  many  branches  had  been  spoiled  of  their  j eaves, 
and  in  the  autumn  were  entirely  destitute  of  fruit ;  while  the  three 
trees,  which  had  been  stripped  of  the  eggs,  were  flush  with  foliage, 
each  limb,  without  exception,  ripening  its  fruit."  These  pertinent 
remarks  point  out  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  evil,  and  suggest 
the  proper  remedy  to  be  used  against  the  ravages  of  these  insects. 
LACKEY  CATERPILLAR. — There  is  a  kind  of  caterpillars  that  swarm 
in  the  unpruned  nurseries  and  neglected  orchards  of  the  slovenly 
husbandman,  and  hang  their  many-coated  webs  upon  the  wild  cherry 
trees  that  are  suffered  to  spring  up  unchecked  by  the  way-side  and 
encroach  upon  the  borders  of  our  pastures  and  fields.  The  eggs 
from  which  they  are  hatched,  are  placed  around  the  ends  of  the 
branches,  forming  a  wide  kind  of  ring  or  bracelet,  consisting  of  three 
or  four  hundred  eggs,  in  the  form  of  short  cylinders  standing  on 
their  ends  close  together,  and  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of  brownish 
water-proof  varnish.  The  caterpillars  come  forth,  with  the  unfold- 
ing of  the  leaves  of  the  apple  and  cherry  tree,  during  the  latter 
part  of  April  or  the  beginning  of  May.  The  first  signs  of  their 
activity  appear  in  the  formation  of  a  little  angular  web  or  tent, 
somewhat  resembling  a  spider's  web,  stretched  between  the  forks 
of  the  branches  a  little  below  the  cluster  of  eggs.  Under  the  shel- 
ter of  these  tents,  in  making  which  they  all  work  together,  the 
caterpillars  remain  concealed  at  all  times  when  not  engaged  in  eat- 
ing. In  crawling  from  twig  to  twig  and  from  leaf  to  leaf,  they 
spin  from  their  mouths  a  slender  silken  thread,  which  is  a  clue  to 
conduct  them  back  to  their  tents ;  and  as  they  go  forth  and  return 
in  files,  one  after  another,  their  pathways  in  time  become  well  car- 
peted with  silk,  which  serves  to  render  their  footing  secure  during 
their  frequent  and  periodical  journeys  in  various  directions,  to  and 
from  their  common  habitation.  As  they  increase  in  age  and  size, 
they  enlarge  their  tent,  surrounding  it,  from  time  to  time,  with  new 
layers  or  webs,  till,  at  length,  it  acquires  a  diameter  of  eight  or  ten 
inches.  They  come  out  together  at  certain  stated  hours  to  eat,  and 
all  retire  at  once  when  their  regular  meals  are  finished ;  during 
bad  weather,  however,  they  fast,  and  do  not  venture  from  their 
shelter.  These  caterpillars  are  of  a  kind  called  lackeys.  When 
fully  grown  they  measure  about  two  inches  in  length.  Their  heads 
are  black ;  extending  along  the  top  of  the  back,  from  one  end  to 
the  other,  is  a  whitish  line,  on  each  side  of  which,  on  a  yellow 
ground,  are  numerous  short  and  fine  crinkled  black  lines,  that 
k»rer  down,  become  mingled  together,  and  form  a  broad  longitu 


104  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

dinal  black  stripe,  or  rather  a  row  of  long  black  spots,  one  on  each 
ring,  in  the  middle  of  each  of  which  is  a  small  blue  spot ;  below 
this  is  a  narrow  wavy  yellow  line,  and  lower  still  the  sides  are  va- 
riegated with  fine  intermingled  black  and  yellow  lines,  which  are 
lost  at  last  in  the  general  dusky  color  of  the  under-side  of  the  body ; 
on  the  top  of  the  eleventh  ring  is  a  small  blackish  and  hairy  wart, 
and  the  whole  body  is  very  sparingly  clothed  with  short  and  soft 
hairs,  rather  thicker  and  longer  upon  the  sides  than  elsewhere. 
From  the  first  to  the  middle  of  June  they  begin  to  leave  the  trees 
upon  which  they  have  hitherto  lived  in  company,  separate  from 
each  other,  wander  about  awhile,  and  finally  get  into  some  crevice 
or  other  place  of  shelter,  and  make  their  cocoons.  These  are  of  a 
regular  long  oval  form,  composed  of  a  thin  and  veiy  loosely  woven 
web  of  silk,  the  meshes  of  which  are  filled  with  a  thin  paste,  that 
on  drying  is  changed  to  a  yellow  powder,  like  flour  of  sulphur  in 
appearance.  Some  of  the  caterpillars,  either  from  weakness  or  some 
other  cause,  do  not  leave  their  nests  with  the  rest  of  the  swarm, 
but  make  their  cocoons  there,  and  when  the  webs  are  opened  these 
cocoons  may  be  seen  intermixed  with  a  -mass  of  blackish  grains,  like 
gunpowder,  excreted  by  the  caterpillars  during  their  stay.  From 
fourteen  to  seventeen  days  after  the  insect  has  made  its  cocoon  and 
changed  to  a  chrysalis,  it  bursts  its  chrysalis  skin,  forces  its  way 
through  the  wet  and  softened  end  of  its  cocoon,  and  appears  in  the 
winged  or  miller  form. 

The  moth  of  the  lackey-caterpillar  is  of  a  rusty  or  reddish  brown 
color,  more  or  less  mingled  with  gray  on  the  middle  and  base  of 
the  fore-wings,  which,  besides,  are  crossed  by  two  oblique,  straight, 
dirty  white  lines.  It  expands  from  one  inch  and  a  quarter,  to  one 
inch  and  a  half,  or  a  little  more.  The  moths  appear  in  great  num- 
bers in  July,  flying  about  and  often  entering  houses  by  night.  At 
this  time  they  lay  their  eggs,  selecting  the  wild  cherry,  in  prefer- 
ence to  all  other  trees,  for  this  purpose,  and,  next  to  these,  apple- 
trees.  These  insects,  because  they  are  the  most  common  and  most 
abundant  in  all  parts  of  our  country,  and  have  obtained  such  noto- 
riety that  in  common  language  they  are  almost  exclusively  known 
among  us  by  the  name  of  the  caterpillars,  are  the  worst  enemies  Oi 
the  orchard.  Whore  proper  attention  has  not  been  paid  to  the 
destruction  of  them,  they  prevail  to  such  an  extent  as  almost  en- 
tirely to  strip  the  apple  and  cherry  trees  of  their  foliage,  by  their 
attacks  continued  during  the  seven  weeks  of  their  life  in  the  cater- 
pillar form.  The  trees,  in  those  orchards  and  gardens  where  they 


INSECTS.  105 

have  been  suffered  to  breed  for  a  succession  of  years,  become  pre- 
maturely old,  in  consequence  of  the  efforts  they  are  obliged  to 
make  to  repair,  at  an  unseasonable  time,  the  loss  of  their  foliage, 
and  are  rendered  unfruitful,  and  consequently  unprofitable.  But 
this  is  not  all ;  these  pernicious  insects  spread  in  every  direction, 
from  the  trees  of  the  careless  and  indolent,  to  those  of  their  more 
careful  and  industrious  neighbors,  whose  labors  are  thereby  greatly 
increased,  and  have  to  be  followed  up  year  after  year,  without  any 
prospect  of  permanent  relief. 

Many  methods  and  receipts  for  the  destruction  of  these  insects 
have  been  published  and  recommended,  but  have  failed  to  exter- 
minate them,  and  indeed  have  done  but  little  to  lessen  their  num- 
bers. The  great  difficulty  is  the  neglect  to  do  any  thing,  till  after 
the  caterpillars  have  covered  the  trees  with  their  nests.  Then  the 
labors  of  the  sluggard  commence,  and  one  tree,  let  his  receipt  be 
ever  so  perfect  and  powerful,  will  cost  him  as  much  time  and  labor 
as  ten  trees  would  have  required  three  weeks  sooner.  The  means 
to  be  employed  may  be  stated  under  three  heads.  The  first  is,  the 
collection  and  destruction  of  the  eggs.  These  should  be  sought  for 
in  the  winter  and  the  early  part  of  spring,  when  there  are  no  leave? 
on  the  trees.  They  are  easily  discovered  at  this  time,  and  may  be 
removed  with  the  thumb-nail  and  fore-finger.  Nurseries  and  the 
lower  limbs  of  large  trees  may  thus  be  entirely  cleared  of  the  clus- 
ters of  eggs  during  a  few  visits  made  at  the  proper  season.  If  a  - 
liberal  bounty  for  the  collection  of  the  eggs  were  to  be  offered,  and 
continued  for  the  space  of  ten  years,  these  destructive  caterpillars 
would  be  nearly  exterminated  at  the  end  of  that  time.  Under  the 
second  head  are  to  be  mentioned  the  most  approved-  plans  for  de- 
^troying  the  caterpillars  after  they  are  hatched,  and  have  begun  to 
make  their  nests  or  tents.  It  is  well  known  that  the  caterpillars 
come  out  to  feed  twice  during  the  day-time,  namely,  in  the  fore- 
noon and  afternoon,  and  that  they  rarely  leave  their  nests  before 
nine  in  the  morning,  and  return  to  them  again  at  noon.  During 
the  early  part  of  the  season,  while  the  nests  are  small,  and  the  cat- 
erpillars young  and  tender,  and  at  those  hours  when  the  insects 
are  gathered  together  within  their  common  habitation,  they  may 
be  effectually  destroyed  by  crushing  thorn  by  hand  in  the  nests. 
A  brush,  somewhat  like  a  bottle-brush,  fixed  to  a  long  handle,  a 
dried  mullein  head  and  its  stalk  fastens  1  to  a  pole,  will  be  useful 
to  remove  the  nests,  with  the  caterpillars  contained  therein,  from 
those  branches  which  are  too  high  to  be  reached  by  hand.  In- 
5* 


106  THE   PESTS  OF  THE   FARM. 

stead  o/  the  brush,  we  may  use,  with  nearly  equal  success,  a  small 
mop  or  sponge,  dipped  as  often  as  necessary  into  a  pailful  of  refuse 
soap-suds,  strong  white- wash,  or  cheap  oil.  The  mop  should  be 
thrust  into  the  nest  and  turned  round  a  little,  so  as  to  wet  the  cat- 
erpillars with  the  liquid,  which  will  kill  every  one  that  it  touches. 
These  means,  fo  be  effectual,  ,*iould  be  employed  during  the  proper 
hours,  that  is,  early  in  the  morning,  at  mid-day,  or  at  night,  and 
as  soon  in  the  spring  as  the  caterpillars  begin  to  make  their  nests ; 
and  they  should  be  repeated  as  often  at  least,  as  once  a  week,  till 
the  insects  leave  the  trees.  Early  attention  and  perseverance  in 
the  use  of  these  remedies  will,  in  time,  save  the  farmer  hundreds 
of  dollars,  and  abundance  of  mortification  and  disappointment,  be- 
sides rewarding  him  with  the  grateful  sight  of  the  verdant  foliage, 
snowy  blossoms,  and  rich  fruits  of  his  orchard  in  their  proper  sea- 
sons. Under  the  third  head,  declare  war  against  these  caterpillars, 
a  war  of  extermination,  to  be  waged  annually  during  the  month  of 
May  and  the  beginning  of  June.  Let  every  able-bodied  citizen, 
who  is  the  owner  of  an  apple  or  cherry  tree,  cultivated  or  wild, 
within  our  borders,  open  the  campaign  in  May,  and  give  battle  to 
the  common  enemy.  If  every  man  is  prompt  to  do  his  duty,  the 
enemy  will  be  completely  conquered. 

LOCUST-TREE  BORERS. — The  locust-tree,  Robinia  pseudacacia,  is 
preyed  upon  by  three  different  kinds  of  wood-eaters  or  borers,  whose 
unchecked  ravages  seem  to  threaten  the  entire  destruction  and  ex- 
termination of  this  valuable  tree  within  this  part  of  the  United 
States.  One  of  these  borers  is  a  little  reddish  caterpillar,  whose 
operations  are  confined  to  the  small  branches  and  to  very  young 
trees,  in  the  pith  of  which  it  lives ;  and  by  its  irritation  it  causes 
the  twig  to  swell  around  the  part  attacked.  These  swellings,  being 
spongy  and  also  perforated  by  the  caterpillar,  are  weaker  than  the 
rest  of  the  stem,  which  therefore  easily  breaks  off  at  these  places. 

The  second  kind  of  borer  of  the  locust-tree  is  larger  than  tho 
foregoing,  is  a  grub,  and  not  a  caterpillar,  which  finally  turns  to  the 
beetle  named  Clytus  pictus,  the  painted  Clytus.  In  the  month  of 
September  these  beetles  gather  on  the  locust-trees.  Having  paired, 
the  female  creeps  over  the  bark,  searching  the  crevices  with  her 
antennae,  and  dropping  therein  her  snow-white  eggs,  in  clusters  of 
seven  or  eight  together,  and  at  intervals  of  five  or  six  minutes,  till 
her  whole  stock  is  safely  stored.  The  eggs  are  soon  hatched,  and 
the  grubs  immediately  burrow  into  the  bark,  devouring  the  soft 
inner  substance  that  suffices  for  their  nourishment  tiH  the  approach 


INSECTS.  107 

of  winter,  during  which  *they  remain  at  rest  in  a  torpid  state.  In 
the  spring  they  bore  through  the  sap-wood,  more  or  less  deeply  into 
the  trunk,  the  general  course  of  their  winding  and  irregular  pas- 
sages being  in  an  upward  direction  from  the  place  of  their  entrance. 
For  a  time  they  cast  their  chips  out  of  their  holes  as  fast  as  they 
are  made,  but  after  a  while  the  passage  becomes  clogged  and  the 
burrow  more  or  less  filled  with  the  coarse  and  fibrous  fragments  ol 
wood,  to  get  rid  of  which  the  grubs  are  often  obliged  to  open  new 
holes  through  the  bark.  The  seat  of  their  operations  is  known  by 
the  oozing  of  the  sap  and  the  dropping  of  the  saw-dust  from  the 
holes.  The  bark  around  the  part  attacked  begins  to  swell,  and  in 
a  few  years  the  trunks  and  limbs  will  become  disfigured  and  weak- 
ened by  large  porous  tumors,  caused  by  the  efforts  of -the  trees  to 
repair  the  injuries  they  have  suffered.  The  grubs  attain  their  full 
size  by  the  twentieth  of  July,  soon  become  pupae,  and  are  changed 
to  beetles  and  leave  the  trees  early  in  September.  Thus  the  exist- 
ence of  this  species  is  limited  to  one  year. 

White-washing,  and  covering  the  trunks  of  the  trees  with  graft- 
ing composition,  may  prevent  the  female  from  depositing  her  eggs 
upon  them  ;  but  this  practice  cannot  be  carried  to  any  great  extent 
in  plantations  or  large  nurseries  of  the  trees.  Perhaps  it  will  be 
useful  to  head  or  cut  down  young  trees  to  the  ground,  with  the 
view  of  destroying  the  grubs  contained  in  them,  as  well  as  to  pro- 
mote a  more  vigorous  growth.  Much  evil  might  be  prevented  by 
employing  children  to  collect  the  beetles  while  in  the  act  of  provi- 
ding for  the  continuation  of  their  kind.  A  common  black  bottle, 
containing  a  little  water,  would  be  a  suitable  vessel  to  receive  the 
beetles  as  fast  as  they  were  gathered,  and  should  be  emptied  into 
the  fire  in  order  to  destroy  the  insects.  The  gathering  should  be 
begun  as  soon  as  the  beetles  first  appear,  and  should  be  continued 
as  long  as  any  are  found  on  the  trees,  and  furthermore  should  be 
made  a  general  business  for  several  years  in  succession.  I  have  no 
doubt,  should  this  be  done,  that,  by  devoting  one  hour  every  day 
to  this  object,  we  may,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  rid  ourselves 
of  this  destructive  insect. 

The  third  of  the  wood-eaters,  to  which  the  locust-tree  is  exposed, 
though  less  common  than  the  others,  and  not  so  universally  de- 
structive to  the  tree  as  the  painted  Clytus,  is  a  very  much  larger 
borer,  and  is  occasionally  productive  of  great  injury,  especially  to 
full-grown  and  old  trees,  for  which  it  appears  to  have  a  preferontfe. 
It  is  a  true  caterpillar,  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  moths  under  con- 


108  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

aideration,  is  reddish,  above,  and  white  beneath,  with  the  head  and 
top  of  the  first  ring  brown  and  shelly,  and  there  are  a  few  short 
hairs  arising  from  minute  warts  thinly  scattered  over  the  surface  of 
the  body.  When  fully  grown,  it  measures  two  inches  and  a  half, 
or  more,  in  length,  and  is  nearly  as  thick  as  the  end  of  the  little 
finger.  These  caterpillars  bore  the  tree  in  various  directions,  but 
for  the  most  part  obliquely  upwards  and  downwards  through  the 
solid  wood,  enlarging  the  holes  as  they  increase  in  size,  and  con- 
tinuing them  through  the  bark  to  the  outside  of  the  trunk.  Before 
transforming,  they  line  these  passages  with  a  web  of  silk,  and,  re- 
tiring to  some  distance  from  the  orifice,  they  spin  around  their 
bodies  a  closer  web,  or  cocoon,  within  which  they  assume  the  chry- 
salis form.  The  chrysalis  measures  one  inch  and  a  half  or  two 
inches  in  length,  is  of  an  amber  color,  changing  to  brown  on  the 
forepart  of  the  body ;  and,  on  the  upper  side  of  each  abdominal 
ring,  are  two  transverse  rows  of  tooth-like  projections.  By  the  help 
of  these,  the  insect,  when  ready  for  its  last  transformation,  works 
its  way  to  the  mouth  of  its  burrow,  where  it  remains  while  the 
chrysalis  skin  is  rent,  upon  which  it  comes  forth  on  the  trunk  of  the 
tree  a  winged  moth.  In  this  its  perfected  state,  it  is  of  a  grav  color ; 
the  fore-wings  are  thickly  covered  with  dusky  netted  lines  and 
irregular  spots,  the  hind-wings  are  more  uniformly  dusky,  and  the 
shoulder-covers  are  edged  with  black  on  the  inside.  It  expands 
about  three  inches.  The  male,  which  is  much  smaller,  and  has 
been  mistaken  for  another  species,  is  much  darker  than  the  female, 
from  which  it  differs  also  in  having  a  large  ochre-yellow  spot  on  the 
hind-wings,  contiguous  to  their  posterior  margin.  Professor  Peck, 
who  first  made  public  the  history  of  this  insect,  named  it  Cossus 
Hcbinice,  the  Cossus  of  the  locust-tree.  It  is  supposed  by  Professor 
Peck  ip  remain  three  years  in  the  caterpillar  state.  The  moth 
comes  forth  about  the  middle  of  July. 

Our  fruit-trees  seem  to  be  peculiarly  subject  to  the  ravages  of  in- 
sects, probably  because  the  native  trees  of  the  forest,  which  origi- 
nally yielded  the  insects  an  abundance  of  food,  have  been  destroyed 
to  a  great  extent,  and  their  places  supplied  only  partially  by  orch- 
ards, gardens,  and  nurseries.  Numerous  as  are  the  kinds  of  cater- 
pillars now  found  on  cultivated  trees,  some  are  far  more  abundant 
than  others,  and  therefore  more  often  fall  under  our  observation, 
and  come  to  be  better  known.  Such,  for  instance,  are  certain  gre- 
garious caterpillars  that  swarm  on  the  apple,  cherry,  arid  plum-trees 
towards  the  end  of  summer,  stripping  whole  branches  of  their 


INSECTS.  109 

leaves,  and  not  unfrequently  despoiling  our  rose-bushes  and  thorn- 
hedges  also.  These  caterpillars  are  of  two  kinds,  very  different  in 
appearance,  but  alike  in  habits  and  destructive  propensities.  The 
first  of  these  may  be  called  the  red-humped,  a  name  that  will  pro- 
bably bring  these  insects  to  the  remembrance  of  those  persons  who 
have  ever  observed  them.  Different  broods  make  their  appearance 
at  various  times  during  August  and  September.  The  eggs,  from 
which  they  proceed,  are  laid,  in  the  course  of  the  month  of  July, 
in  clusters  on  the  under-side  of  a  leaf,  generally  near  the  end  of  a 
branch.  When  first  hatched  they  eat  only  the  substance  of  the 
under-side  of  the  leaf,  leaving  the  skin  of  the  upper-side  and  all  the 
veins  untouched  ;  but  as  they  grow  larger  and  stronger  they  de- 
vour whole  leaves  from  the  point  to  the  stalk,  and  go  from  leaf  to 
leaf  down  the  twigs  and  branches.  The  young  caterpillars  are 
lighter  colored  than  the  old  ones,  which  are  yellowish- brown,  paler 
on  the  sides,  and  longitudinally  striped  with  slender  black  lines ; 
the  head  is  red ;  on  the  top  of  the  fourth  ring  there  is  a  bunch  or 
hump,  also  of  a  red  color ;  along  the  back  are  several  short  black 
prickles ;  and  the  hinder  extremity  tapers  somewhat,  and  is  always 
elevated  at  an  angle  with  the  rest  of  the  body,  when  the  insect  is 
not  crawling.  The  full-grown  caterpillars  measure  one  inch  and  a 
quarter,  or  rather  more,  in  length.  The  rest  close  together  on  the 
twigs,  when  not  eating,  and  sometimes  entirely  cover  the  small 
twigs  and  ends  of  the  branches.  The  early  broods  come  to  their 
growth  and  leave  the  trees  by  the  middle  of  August,  and  the  others 
between  this  time  and  the  latter  part  of  September.  All  the  cat- 
erpillars of  the  same  brood  descend  at  one  time,  and  disappear  in 
the  night.  They  conceal  themselves  under  leaves,  or  just  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  make  their  cocoons.  They  remain  a 
long  time  in  their  cocoons  before  changing  to  chrysalids,  and  are 
transformed  to  moths  towards  the  end  of  June  or  the  beginning  of 
July.  Mr.  Abbot  states  that  in  Georgia  these  insects  breed  twice 
a  year,  the  first  broods  making  their  cocoons  towards  the  end  of 
May,  and  appearing  in  the  winged  form  fifteen  days  afterwards. 
This,  a  Notodonta,  is  a  neat  and  trim  looking  moth,  and  is  of  a 
light  brown  color ;  the  fore-wings  are  dark  brown  along  the  inner 
margin,  and  more  or  less  tinged  with  gray  before ;  there  is  a  dark 
brown  dot  near  the  middle,  a  spot  of  the  same  color  near  each  an 
gle,  a  very  small  triangular  whitish  spot  near  the  shoulders,  and 
several  dark  brown  longitudinal  streaks  on  the  outer  hind  margin ; 
the  hind-wings  of  the  male  are  brownish  or  dirty  white,  with  a 


110  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FAKM. 

brown  spot  on  the  inner  hind  angle ;  those  of  the  other  sex  are 
dusky  brown ;  the  body  is  light  brown,  with  the  thorax  rathei 
darker.  The  wings  expand  from  one  inch  to  one  inch  and  three- 
eighths. 

The  second  kind  grow  to  a  greater  size,  are  longer  in  coming  to 
their  growth,  their  swarms  are  more  numerous,  and  consequently 
they  do  much  more  injury  than  the  red-humped  kind.  Entire 
branches  of  the  apple-trees  are  frequently  stripped  of  their  leaves 
by  them,  and  are  loaded  with  these  caterpillars  in  thickly  crowded 
swarms.  The  eggs  from  which  they  are  hatched  will  be  found  in 
patches,  of  about  a  hundred  together,  fastened  to  the  under-side  of 
leaves  near  the  ends  of  the  twigs.  Some  of  them  begin  to  be 
hatched  about  the  twentieth  of  July,  and  new  broods  make  their 
appearance  in  succession  for  the  space  of  a  month  or  more.  At 
first  they  eat  only  tJhe  under-side  and  pulpy  part  of  the  leaves, 
leaving  the  upper-side  and  veins  untouched  ;  but  afterwards  they 
consume  the  whole  of  the  leaves  except  their  stems.  These  cater- 
pillars are  sparingly  covered  with  soft  whitish  hairs ;  the  young 
ones  are  brown,  and  striped  with  white ;  but  as  they  grow  older, 
their  colors  become  darker  every  time  they  cast  their  skins.  They 
come  to  their  full  size  in  about  five  weeks  or  a  little  more,  and  then 
measure  from  an  inch  and  three  quarters  to  two  inches  and  a  quar- 
ter in  extent.  The  head  is  large,  and  of  a  black  color ;  the  body 
is  nearly  cylindrical,  with  a  spot  on  the  top  of  the  first  ring  and  the 
legs  dull  orange-yellow,  a  black  stripe  along  the  top  of  the  back, 
and  three  of  the  same  color  alternating  with  four  yellow  stripes  on 
each  side.  The  posture  of  these  caterpillars,  when  at  rest,  is  vcfry 
odd ;  both  extremities  are  raised,  the  body  being  bent,  and  resting 
only  on  the  four  intermediate  pairs  of  legs.  If  touched  or  other- 
wise disturbed,  they  throw  up  their  heads  and  tails  with  a  jerk,  at 
the  same  time  bending  the  body  semicircularly  till  the  two  extremi- 
ties almost  meet  over  the  back.  They  all  eat  together,  and,  after 
they  have  done,  arrange  themselves  side  by  side  along  the  twigs 
and  branches  which  they  have  stripped.  Beginning  at  the  ends 
of  the  branches  they  eat  all  the  leaves  successively  from  thence  to- 
wards the  trunk,  and  if  one  branch  does  not  afford  food  enough 
they  betake  themselves  to  another.  When  ready  to  transform,  all 
the  individuals  of  the  same  brood  quit  the  tree  at  once,  descending 
by  night,  and  burrow  into  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four 
inches,  and,  within  twenty-four  hours  afterwards,  cast  their  cater- 
pillar-skins, and  become  chrysalids  without  making  cocoons.  They 


INSECTS.  Ill 

remain  in  the  ground  m  this  state  all  winter,  and  are  changed  tc 
moths  and  come  out  oetween  the  middle  and  end  of  July.  These 
moths  belong  to  the  genus  Pygcera,  so  named  because  the  cater- 
pillar sits  with  its  tail  raised  up.  The  antennae  are  rather  long, 
those  of  the  males  fringed  beneath,  in  a  double  row,  with  very 
short  hairs  nearly  to  the  tips,  which,  however,  as  well  as  the  whole 
of  the  stalk  of  the  antennae  in  the  other  sex,  are  bare  ;  the  thorax 
is  generally  marked  with  a  large  dark-colored  spot,  the  hairs  of 
which  can  be  raised  up  so  as  to  form  a  ridge  or  kind  of  crest ;  the 
hinder  margin  of  tfce  fore-wings  is  slightly  notched  ;  and  the  fore- 
legs are  stretched  out  before  the  body  in  repose.  Our  Pygcera  was 
named,  by  Drury,  ministra,  the  attendant  or  servant.  It  is  of  a 
light  brown  color  ;  the  head  and  a  large  square  spot  on  the  thorax 
are  dark  chestnut-brown ;  on  the  fore-wings  are  four  or  five  trans- 
verse lines,  one  or  two  spots  near  the  middle,  and  a  short  oblique 
line  near  the  tip,  all  of  which,  with  the  outer  hind  margin,  are  dark 
chestnut-brown.  One  and  sometimes  both  of  the  dark-brown  spots 
are  wanting  on  the  fore-wings  in  the  males,  and  the  females,  which 
are  larger  than  the  other  sex,  frequently  have  five  instead  of  four 
transverse  brown  lines.  It  expands  from  one  inch  and  three  quar- 
ters to  two  inches  and  a  half. 

There  are  seen  on  the  oak,  the  birch,  the  black  walnut,  and  the 
hickory  trees,  swarms  of  caterpillars  slightly  differing  in  color  from 
each  other  and  from  those  that  live  on  the  apple  and  cherry  trees ; 
they  are  more  hairy  than  the  latter,  but  their  postures  and  habits 
appear  to  be  the  same.  They  are  probably  only  varieties  of  the 
ministra,  arising  from  the  difference  of  food. 

CORN  CATERPILLAR. — Indian  corn  often  suffers  severely  from  the 
depredations  of  one  of  the  genus  Nonagrians,  known  to  our  farmers 
by  the  name  of  the  spindle- worm.  This  insect  receives  its  common 
name  from  its  destroying  the  spindle  of  the  Indian  corn ;  bat  its 
ravages  generally  begin  while  the  corn-stalk  is  young,  and  before 
the  spindle  rises  much  above  the  tuft  of  leaves  in  which  it  is  em- 
bosomed. The  mischief  is  discovered  by  the  withering  of  the  leaves, 
and,  when  these  are  taken  hold  of,  they  may  often  be  drawn  out 
with  the  included  spindle.  On  examining  the  corn,  a  small  hole 
may  be  seen  in  the  side  of  the  l3afy  stalk,  near  the  ground,  pene- 
trating into  the  soft  centre  of  the  stalk,  which,  when  cut  open,  will 
be  found  to  be  perforated,  both  up  wards  and  downwards,  by  a  slen- 
der worm  -like  caterpillar,  whose  excrementitious  castings  surround 
the  orifice  of  the  hole.  -  This  caterpillar  grows  to  the  length  of  an 


112  THE  PESTS   OF  THE  FARM. 

inch,  or  more,  and  to  the  thickness  of  a  goose-quill.  It  is  smooth, 
and  apparently  naked,  yellowish,  with  the  head,  the  top  of  the  first 
and  of  the  last  rings  black,  and  with  a  band  across  each  of  the 
other  rings,  consisting  of  small,  smooth,  slightly  elevated,  shining 
black  dots,  arranged  in  a  double  row.  The  chrysalis,  which  is 
lodged  in  the  burrow  formed  by  the  spindle-worm,  is  slender,  but 
not  quite  so  long  in  proportion  to  its  thickness  as  are  those  of  most 
of  the  ISTonagrians.  It  is  shining  mahogany-brown,  with  the  ante- 
rior edges  of  four  of  the  rings  of  the  back  roughened  with  little 
points,  and  four  short  spines  or  hooks,  turned  upwards,  on  the 
hinder  extremity  of  the  body.  The  fore-wings  are  rust-red ;  they 
are  mottled  with  gray,  almost  in  bands,  uniting  with  the  ordinary 
spots,  which  are  also  gray  and  indistinct ;  there  is  an  irregular 
tawny  spot  near  the  tip,  and  on  the  veins  there  are  a  few  black 
dots.  The  hind-wings  are  yellowish  gray,  with  a  central  dusky 
spot,  behind  which  are  two  faint,  dusky  bands.  The  head  and 
thorax  are  rust-red,  with  an  elevated  tawny  tuft  on  each.  The  ab- 
domen is  pale  brown,  with  a  row  of  tawny  tufts  on  the  back.  The 
wings  expand  nearly  one  inch  and  a  half. 

In  order  to  check  the  ravages  of  these  insects  they  must  be  de- 
stroyed while  in  the  caterpillar  state.  As  soon  as  our  corn-fields 
begin  to  show,  by  the  withering  of  the  leaves,  the  usual  signs  that 
the  enemy  is  at  work  in  the  stalks,  the  spindle-worms  should  be 
sought  for  and  killed  ;  for,  if  allowed  to  remain  undisturbed  until 
they  turn  to  moths,  they  will  make  their  escape,  and  we  shall  not 
be  able  to  prevent  them  from  laying  their  eggs  for  another  brood 
of  these  pestilent  insects. 

CUT  WORMS. — Numerous  complaints  have  been  made  of  the 
ravages  of  cut-worms  among  corn,  wheat,  grass,  and  other  vegeta- 
bles, in  various  parts  of  the  country.  These  insects  and  their  his- 
tory are  not  yet  known  to  some  of  the  very  persons  who  are  said 
to  have  suffered  from  their  depredations.  .  Various  cut-worms,  or 
more  properly  subterranean  caterpillars,  wire- worms  and  grub- 
worms,  or  the  young  of  May-beetles,  are  often  confounded  together 
or  mistaken  for  each  other ;  sometimes  their  names  are  inter- 
changed, and  sometimes  the  same  name  is  given  to  each  and  all  of 
these  different  animals.  Hence  the  remedies  that  are  successful  in 
some  instances  are  entirely  useless  in  others.  The  name  of  cut- 
worm seems  originally  to  have  been  given  to  certain  caterpillars 
that  live  in  the  ground  about  the  roots  of  plants,  but  come  up  in 
the  night,  and  cut  off  and  devour  the  tender  stems  and  lower  leaves 


INSECTS. 


113 


THE    COT   WORM. 

of  young  cabbages,  beans,  corn,  and  other  herbaceous  plants.  These 
subterranean  caterpillars  are  finally  transformed  to  moths  belonging 
to  a  group  which  may  be  called  Agrotidians  (AGROTIDID.E),  from  a 
word  signifying  rustic,  or  pertaining  to  the  fields.  Some  of  these 
rustic  moths  fly  by  day,  and  may  be  found  in  the  fields,  especially 
in  the  autumn,  sucking  the  honey  of  flowers ;  others  are  on  the 
wing  only  at  night,  and  during  the  day  lie  concealed  in  chinks  of 
walls  and  other  dark  places.  Their  wings  are  nearly  horizontal 
when  closed,  the  upper  pair  completely  covering  the  lower  wings, 
and  often  overlapping  a  little  on  their  inner  edges,  thus  favoring 
these  insects  in  their  attempts  to  obtain  shelter  and  concealment. 
The  thorax  is  slightly  convex,  but  smooth  or  not  crested.  The  an- 
tennae of  the  males  are  generally  beset  with  two  rows  of  short  points, 
like  fine  teeth,  on  the  under-side,  nearly  to  the  tips.  The  fore-legs 
are  often  quite  spiny.  Most  of  these  moths  come  forth  in  July  and 
August,  and  soon  afterwards  lay  their  eggs  in  the  gfound,  in 
plowed  fields,  gardens,  and  meadows.  In  Europe  it  is  found  that 
the  eggs  are  hatched  early  in  the  autumn,  at  wluch  time  the  little 
subterranean  caterpillars  live  chiefly  on  the  roots  and  tender  sprouts 
of  herbaceous  plants.  On  the  approach  of  winter  they  descend 
deeper  into  the  ground,  and,  curling  themselves  up,  remain  in  a 
torpid  state  till  the  following  spring,  when  they  ascend  towards  the 
surface,  and  renew  their  devastations.  The  caterpillars  of  the 
Agrotidians  are  smooth,  shining,  naked,  and  dark-colored,  with  lon- 
gitudinal pale  and  blackish  stripes,  and  a  few  black  dots  on  each 


THE  PESTS  OF  THE   FARM. 

ring ;  some  of  them  also  have  a  shining,  horny,  black  spot,  on  the 
top  of  the  first  ring.  They  are  of  a  cylindrical  form,  tapering  a 
little  at  each  end,  rather  thick  in  proportion  to  their  length,  and  are 
provided  with  sixteen  legs.  They  are  changed  to  chrysalids  in  the 
ground,  without  previously  making  silken  cocoons. 

It  is  chiefly  during  the  months  of  June  and  July  that  they  are 
found  to  be  most  destructive.  Whole  grain-fields  are  sometimes 
laid  waste  by  them.  Cabbage-plants,  till  they  are  grown  to  a  con- 
siderable size,  are  very  apt  to  be  cut  off  and  destroyed'  by  them. 
Potato-vines,  beans,  beets,  and  various  other  culinary  plants  suffer 
in  the  same  way.  The  products  of  our  flower-gardens  are  not 
spared  ;  asters,  balsams,  pinks,  and  many  other  kinds  of  flowers  are 
often  shorn  of  their  leaves  and  of  their  central  buds,  by  these  con- 
cealed spoilers. 

There  are  several  species  of  Agrotis,  the  larvae  of  which  are  inju- 
rious to  culinary  plants ;  but  the  chief  culprit  fe  the  same  as  that 
which  is  destructive  to  young  corn.  The  corn-cut  worms  make 
their  appearance  in  great  numbers  at  irregular  periods,  and  confine 
themselves  in  their  devastations  to  no  particular  vegetables,  all  that 
are  succulent  being  relished  by  these  indiscriminate  devourers ;  but, 
if  their  choice  is  not  limited,  they  prefer  corn-plants  when  not  more 
than  a  few  inches  above  the  earth,  early  sown  buckwheat,  young 
pumpkin  plants,  young  beans,  cabbage-plants,  and  many  other  field 
and  garden  vegetables.  When  first  disclosed  from  the  eggs  they 
subsist  on  the  various  grasses.  They  descend  in  the  ground  on  the 
approach  of  severe  frosts,  and  reappear  in  the  spring  about  half 
grown.  They  seek  their  food  in  the  night  or  in  cloudy  weather, 
and  retire  before  sunrise  into  the  ground,  or  beneath  stones  or  any 
substance  which  can  shelter  them  from  the  rays  of  the  sun  ;  here 
they  remain  coiled  up  during  the  day,  except  while  devouring  the 
food  which  they  generally  drag  into  their  places  of  concealment. 
Their  transformation  to  pupae  occurs  at  different  periods,  sometimes 
earlier,  sometimes  later,  according  to  the  forwardness  of  the  season, 
but  usually  not  much  later  than  the  middle  of  July.  The  moths, 
as  well  as  the  larvae,  vary  much  in  the  depth  of  their  color,  from  a 
pale  ash  to  a  deep  or  obscure  brown.  The  ordinary  spots  of  the 
upper  wings  of  the  moth  are  always  connected  by  a  blackish  line ; 
where  the  color  is  of  the  deepest  shade  these  spots  are  scarcely 
visible,  but  when  the  color  is  lighter  they  are  very  obvious.  This 
moth  is  very  abundant  in  the  New  England  States,  from  the  mid- 
dle of  June  till  the  middle  or  end  of  August.  The  fore- wings  are 


INSECTS.  115 

generally  of  a  dark  ash-color,  with  only  a  very  faint  trace  cf  the 
double  tiansverse  wavy  bands  that  are  found  in  most  species  of 
Agrotis  ;  the  two  ordinary  spots  are  small  and  narrow,  the  anterior 
spot  being  oblong  oval,  and  connected  with  the  oblique  kidney- 
shaped  spot,  by  a  longitudinal  black  line.  The  hind  wings  are 
dirty  brownish  white,  somewhat  darker  behind.  The  head,  the 
collar,  and.  the  abdomen  are  chestnut-colored.  It  expands  one  inch 
and  three  quarters.  The  wings,  when  shut,  overlap  on  their  inner 
edges,  and  cover  the  top  of  the  back  so  flatly  and  closely  that  these 
moths  can  ^t  into  very  narrow  crevices.  During  the  day  they  lie 
hidden  under  the  bark  of  trees,  in  the  chinks  of  fences,  and  even 
under  the  loose  clapboards  of  buildings.  When  the  blinds  of  our 
houses  are  opened  in  the  morning,  a  little  swarm  of  these  insects, 
which  had  crept  behind  them  for  concealment,  is  sometimes  ex- 
posed, and  suddenly  aroused  from  their  daily  slumber. 

Among  the  various  remedies  that  have  been  proposed  for  pre- 
venting the  ravages  of  cut-worms  in  wheat  and  corn-fields,  may  be 
mentioned  the  soaking  of  grain,  before  planting,  in  copperas-water 
and  other  solutions  supposed  to  be  disagreeable  to  the  insects ; 
rolling  the  seed  in  lime  or  ashes ;  and  mixing  salt  with  the  manure. 
These  may  prevent  wire-worms  and  some  insects  from  destroying 
the  seed ;  but  cut-worms  prey  only  on  the  sprouts  and  young 
stalks,  and  do  not  eat  the  seeds.  Such  stimulating  applications 
may  be  of  some  benefit,  by  promoting  a  more  rapid  and  vigorous 
growth  of  the  grain,  by  which  means  the  sprouts  will  the  sooner 
become  so  strong  and  rank  as  to  resist  or  escape  the  attacks  of  the 
young  cut-worms.  Fall-plowing  of  sward-lands,  which  are  in- 
tended to  be  sown  with  wheat  or  planted  with  corn  the  year  follow- 
ing, will  turn  up  and  expose  the  insects  to  the  inclemency  of  winter, 
whereby  many  of  them  will  be  killed,  and  will  also  bring  them 
within  reach  of  insect-eating  birds.  But  this  seems  to  be  a  doubt- 
ful remedy,  against  which  many  objections  have  been  urged.  The 
most  effectual,  and  not  a  laborious  remedy,  even  in  field-cultuie,  is 
to  go  round  every  morning,  and  open  the  earth  at  the  foot  of  the 
plant,  and  you  will  never  fail  to  find  the  worm  at  the  ro(it,  within 
four  inches.  Kill  him,  and  you  will  save  not  only  the  other  plants 
of  your  field,  but,  probably,  many  thousands  in  future  years. 

PLUM  WEEVIL  OR  CURCULIO. — It  is  now  well  known  that  the 
tailing  of  unripe  plums,  apricots,  peaches  and  cherries,  is  caused  by 
little  whitish  grubs,  which  bore  into  these  fruits.  The  loss  of  fruit, 
occasioned  by  insects  of  this  kind,  is  frequently  very  great ;  and, 


116  THE   PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

in  some  of  oi.r  gardens  and  orchards,  the  crop  of  plums  is  often 
entirely  ruined  by  the  depredations  of  grubs,  which  are  the  larvae 
or  young  of  a  small  beetle  called  the  Nenuphar  or  plum-weevil,  or 
Curculio.  These  beetles  are  found  as  early  as  the  thirtieth  of  March, 
and  as  late  as  the  tenth  of  June,  and  at  various  intermediate  times, 
according  with  the  forwardness  or  backwardness  of  vegetation  in 
the  spring,  and  have  frequently  been  caught  flying  in  the  middle 
of  the  day.  They  are  from  three  twentieths  to  one  fifth  of  an 
inch  long,  exclusive  of  the  curved  snout,  which  is  rather  longer 
than  the  thorax,  and  is  bent  under  the  breast,  betwlten  the  fore- 
legs, when  at  rest.  Their  color  is  a  dark  brown,  variegated  with 
spots  of  white,  ochre-yellow,  and  black.  The  thorax  is  uneven ; 
the  wing-covers  have  several  short  ridges  upon  them,  those  on  the 
middle  of  the  back  forming  two  considerable  humps,  of  a  black 
color,  behind  which  there  is  a  wide  band  of  ochre-yellow  and 
white.  Each  of  the  thighs  has  two  little  teeth  on  the  under-side. 
They  begin  to  sting  the  plums  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  set,  and,  as 
some  say,  continue  their  operations  till  the  first  of  August.  After 
making  a  suitable  puncture  with  their  snouts,  they  lay  one  egg  in 
each  plum  thus  stung,  and  go  over  the  fruit  on  the  tree  in  this  way 
till  their  store  is  exhausted  ;  so  that,  where  these  beetles  abound, 
not  a  plum  will  escape  being  punctured.  The  irritation  arising 
from  these  punctures,  and  from  the  gnawings  of  the  grubs  after 
they  are  hatched,  causes  the  young  fruit  to  become  gummy,  dis- 
eased, and  finally  to  drop  before  it  is  ripe.  Meanwhile  the  grub 
comes  to  its  growth,  and,  immediately  after  the  fruit  falls,  burrows 
into  the  ground.  This  may  occur  at  various  times  between  the 
middle  of  June  and  of  August ;  and,  in  the  space  of  a  little  more 
than  three  weeks  afterwards,  the  insect  completes  its  transforma- 
tions, and  comes  out  of  the  ground  in  the  beetle  form. 

This  same  weevil  attacks  all  our  common  stone-fruits,  such  as 
plums,  peaches,  nectarines,  apricots,  cherries  and  apples ;  and  it  is 
not  at  all  improbable  that  the  transformations  of  some  of  the  grubs 
may  be  retarded  till  the  winter  has  passed,  analogous  cases  being 
of  frequent  occurrence.  The  plum,  still  more  than  the  cherry  tree, 
is  subject  to  a  disease  of  the  small  limbs,  which  shows  itself  in  the 
form  of  large  irregular  warts,  of  a  black  color,  as  if  charred.  Grubs, 
apparently  the  same  as  those  that  are  found  in  plums,  have  often 
been  detected  in  these  warts,  which  are  now  generally  supposed  to 
be  produced  by  the  punctures  of  the  beetles,  and  the  residence  of 
the  grubs.  The  seat  of  the  disease  is  in  the  bark.  The  sap  is  di~ 


INSECTS.  ID 

verted  from  its  regular  course,  and  is  absorbed  entirely  by  the  bark, 
which  is  very  much  increased  in  thickness  ;  the  cuticle  bursts,  the 
swelling  becomes  irregular,  and  is  formed  into  black  lumps,  with  a 
cracked,  uneven,  granulated  surface.  The  wood,  besides  being  de- 
prived of  its  nutriment,  is  very  much  compressed,  and  the  branch 
above  the  tumor  perishes. 

The  final  transformation  of  the  grubs,  living  in  the  fruit,  appears 
to  take  place  at  various  times  during  the  latter  part  of  summer  and 
the  beginning  of  autumn,  when  the  weevil,  finding  no  young  fruit, 
is  probably  obliged  to  lay  its  eggs  in  the  small  branches.  The 
larvae  or  g?  ubs  from  these  eggs  live  in  the  branches  during  the 
winter,  and  are  not  perfected  till  near  the  last  of  the  following 
June.  Should  the  fall  of  the  fruit  occur  late  in  the  autumn,  the 
development  of  the  beetles  will  be  retarded  till  the  next  spring ; 
and  this  is  supposed  to  be  the  origin  of  the  brood  which  stings  the 
fruit. 

The  following,  among  other  remedies  that  have  been  suggested, 
may  be  found  useful  in  checking  the  ravages  of  the  plum-weevil. 
Let  the  trees  be  briskly  shaken  or  suddenly  jarred  every  morning 
and  evening  during  the  time  that  the  insects  appear  in  the  beetle 
form,  and  are  engaged  in  laying  their  eggs.  When  thus  disturbed 
they  contract  their  legs  and  fall ;  and,  as  they  do  not  immediately 
attempt  to  fly  or  crawl  away,  they  may  be  caught  in  a  sheet  spread 
under  the  tree,  from  which  they  should  be  gathered  into  a  large 
wide-mouthed  bottle  or  other  tight  vessel,  and  be  thrown  into  the 
fire.  All  the  fallen  wormy  plums  should  be  immediately  gathered, 
and,  after  they  are  boiled  or  steamed,  to  kill  the  enclosed  grubs, 
they  may  be  given  as  food  to  swine.  The  diseased  excrescences 
should  be  cut  out  and  burned  every  year  before  the  last  of  June. 
The  moose  plum-tree  (Prunus  Americana),  seems  to  escape  the  at- 
tacks of  insects,  for  no  warts  are  found  upon  it,  even  when  growing 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  diseased  foreign  trees.  It  would,  there- 
fore, be  the  best  of  stocks  for  budding  or  engrafting  upon.  It  can 
easily  be  raised  from  the  stone,  and  grows  rapidly,  but  does  not 
attain  a  great  size. 

This  plum-weevil,  an  insect  unknown  in  Europe,  when  arrived  at 
maturity,  is  a  little,  rough,  dark  brown  or  blackish  beetle,  looking 
like  a  dried  bud,  when  it  is  shaken  from  the  trees,  which  resem- 
blance is  increased  by  its  habit  of  drawing  up  its  legs  and  bending 
its  snout  close  to  the  lower  side  of  its  body,  and  remaining  for  a 
time  without  motion  and  seemingly  lifeless.  In  stinging  the  fruit, 


118  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

before  laying  its  eggs,  it  uses  its  short  curved  snout,  which  is  armed 
at  the  tip  with  a  pair  of  very  small  nippers  ;  and  by  means  of  this 
weapon,  ;t  makes,  in  the  tender  skin  of  the  young  plum  or  apple, 
a  crescent-shaped  incision,  similar  to  what  would  be  formed  by  in- 
denting the  fruit  with  the  finger  nail.  Very  rarely  is  there  more 
than  one  incision  made  in  the  same  fruit ;  and  in  the  wound,  the 
weevil  lays  only  a  single  egg.  The  insect  hatched  from  this  egg 
is  a  little  whitish  grub,  destitute  of  feet,  and  very  much  like  a  mag- 
got in  appearance,  except  that  it  has  a  distinct,  rounded,  light  brown 
head.  It  appears,  furthermore,  that  the  tumors  on  plum  and  on 
cherry  trees  are  infested  not  only  by  these  insects,  but  also  by  an- 
other kind  of  grub,  provided  with  legs,  and  occasionally  by  the 
wood-eating  caterpillars  of  the  jEgeria  exitiosa,  or  peach-tree  borer. 
When  the  grubs  of  the  plum-weevil  are  fully  grown,  they  go  into 
the  ground,  and  are  there  changed  to  chrysalids  of  a  white  color, 
having  the  legs  and  wings  free  and  capable  of  some  motion  ;  and 
finally  they  leave  the  ground  in  the  form  of  little  beetles,  exactly 
like  those  which  had  previously  stung 'the  fruit.  Further  observa- 
tion seems  to  be  wanting  before  it  can  be  proved  that  the  cankerous 
warts  on  plum  and  cherry  trees  arise  from  the  irritating  punctures 
of  the  plum-weevils  and  of  the  other  insects  that  occasionally  make 
these  warts  their  places  of  abode ;  although  it  must  be  allowed  that 
the  well-known  production  of  galls  by  insects  on  oak-trees  and  on 
other  plants,  would  lead  us  to  suppose  that  those  of  the  plum-tree 
have  a  similar  origin. 

CANKER-WORMS. — The  insects  called  canker-worms  are  of  a  kind 
called  Span-worms,  or  Geometers,  and  of  the  group  Hybernians. 
The  moths,  from  which  they  are  produced,  belong  to  the  genua 
Anisopteryx. 

It  was  formerly  supposed  that  the  canker-worm  moths  came  out 
of  the  ground  only  in  the  spring.  It  is  now  known  that  many 
of  them  rise  in  the  autumn  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  winter, 
and  in  mild  and  open  winters  in  every  month  from  October  to 
March.  They  begin  to  make  their  appearance  after  the  first  hard 
frosts  in  the  autumn,  usually  towards  the  end  of  October,  and  they 
continue  to  come  forth,  in  greater  or  smaller  numbers,  according 
to  the  mildness  or  severity  of  the  weather  after  the  frosts  have  be- 
gun. Their  general  time  of  rising  is  in  the  spring,  beginning  about 
the  middle  of  March,  but  sometimes  before,  and  sometimes  after 
this  time ;  and  they  continue  to  come  forth  for  the  space  of  about 
three  weeks.  It  has  been  observed  that  there  are  more  females 


INSECTS.  119 

than  males  among  those  that  appear  in  the  autumn  and  winter, 
and  that  the  males  are  most  abundant  in  the  spring.  The  slug- 
gish females  instinctively  make  their  way  towards  the  nearest  trees, 
and  creep  slowly  up  their  trunks.  In  a  few  days  afterwards  they 
are  followed  by  the  winged  and  active  males,  which  flutter  about 
and  accompany  them  in  their  ascent,  during  which  the  insects  pair. 
Soon  after  this,  the  females  lay  their  eggs  upon  the  branches  of  the 
trees,  placing  them  on  their  ends,  close  together  in  rows,  forming 
clusters  of  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  eggs  or  more,  which  is  the 
number  usually  laid  by  each  female.  The  eggs  are  glued  to  each 
other,  and  to  the  bark,  by  a  grayish  varnish,  which  is  impervious 
to  water ;  and  the  clusters  are  thus  securely  fastened  in  the  forks 
of  the  small  branches,  or  close  to  the  young  twigs  and  buds.  Im- 
mediately after  the  insects  have  thus  provided  for  a  succession  of 
their  kind,  they  begin  to  languish,  and  soon  die.  The  eggs  are 
usually  hatched  between  the  first  and  the  middle  of  May,  or  about 
the  time  that  the  red  currant  is  in  blossom,  and  the  young  leaves 
of  the  apple-tree  begin  to  start  from  the  bud  and  grow.  The  little 
canker-worms,  upon  making  their  escape  from  the  eggs,  gather 
upon  the  tender  leaves,  and,  on  the  occurreHce  of  cold  and  wet 
weather,  creep  for  shelter  into  the  bosom  of  the  bud,  or  into  the 
flowers,  when  the  latter  appear.  Where  these  insects  prevail,  they 
are  most  abundant  on  apple  and  elm  trees ;  but  cherry,  plum, 
and  lime  trees,  and  some  other  cultivated  and  native  trees,  as  well 
as  many  shrubs,  often  suffer  severely  from  their  voracity.  The  leaves 
first  attacked  will  be  found  pierced  with  small  holes ;  these  become 
larger  and  more  irregular  when  the  canker-worms  increase  in  size ; 
and,  at  last,  the  latter  eat  nearly  all  the  pulpy  parts  of  the  leaves, 
leaving  little  more  than  the  midrib  and  veins.  A  very  great  dif- 
ference of  color  is  observable  among  canker-worms  of  different  ages, 
and  even  among  those  of  the  same  age  and  size.  It  is  possible  that 
some  of  these  variations  may  arise  from  a  difference  of  species ;  but 
it  is  also  true  that  the  some  species  varies  much  in  color.  When 
very  young,  they  have  two  minute  warts  on  the  top  of  the  last 
ring  ;  and  they  are  generally  of  a  blackish  or  dusky  brown  color, 
with  a  yellowish  stripe  on  each  side  of  the  body  ;  there  are  two 
whitish  bands  across  the  head ;  and  the  belly  is  also  whitish.  When 
fully  grown,  these  individuals  become  ash-colored  on  the  back,  and 
bla2k  on  the  sides,  below  which  the  pale  yellowish  line  .'remains. 
Some  are  found  of  a  dull  greenish  yellow  and  others  of  a  clay  color, 
with  slender  interrupted  blackish  lines  on  the  sides,  and  small  spots 


120  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FAKM. 

of  the  same  color  on  the  back.  Some  are  green,  with  two  white 
stripes  c.  «i  the  back.  The  head  and  the  feet  partake  of  the  general 
color  of  the  body  ;  the  belly  is  paler.  When  not  eating,  they  re- 
main stretched  out  at  full  length,  and  resting  on  their  fore  and  hind 
legs,  beneath  the  leaves.  When  fully  grown  and  well  fed,  they 
measure  nearly  or  quite  one  inch  in  length.  They  leave  off  eating 
when  about  four  weeks  old,  and  begin  to  quit  the  trees ;  some  creep 
down  by  the  trunk,  but  great  numbers  let  themselves  down  by  their 
threads  from  the  branches,  their  instincts  prompting  them  to  get  to 
the  ground  by  the  most  direct  and  easiest  course.  When  thus  de- 
scending, and  suspended  in  great  numbers  under  the  limbs  of  trees 
overhanging  the  road,  they  are  often  swept  off  by  passing  carriages, 
and  are  thus  conveyed  to  other  places.  After  reaching  the  ground, 
they  immediately  burrow  in  the  earth,  to  the  depth  of  from  two  to 
six  inches,  unless  prevented  by  weakness  or  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
In  the  latter  case,  they  die,  or  undergo  their  transformations  on  the 
surface.  In  the  former,  they  make  little '  cavities  or  cells  in  the 
ground,  by  turning  round  repeatedly  and  fastening  the  loose  grains 
of  earth  about  them  with  a  few  silken  threads.  Within  twenty- 
four  hours  afterward*,  they  are  changed  to  chrysalids  in  their  cells. 
The  chrysalis  is  of  a  light  brown  color,  and  varies  in  size  according 
to  the  sex  of  the  insect  contained  in  it ;  that  of  the  female  being 
the  largest,  and  being  destitute  of  a  covering  for  wings,  which  is 
found  in  the  chrysalis  of  the  males.  The  occurrence  of  mild 
weather  after  a  severe  frost  stimulates  some  of  these  insects  to  burst 
their  chrysalis  skins  and  come  forth  in  the  perfected  state ;  and 
this  last  transformation,  as  before  stated,  may  take  place  in  the  au- 
tumn, or  in  the  course  of  the  winter,  as  well  as  in  the  spring ;  it  is 
also  retarded,  in  some  individuals,  for  a  year  or  more  beyond  the 
usual  time.  They  come  out  of  the  ground  mostly  in  the  night, 
when  they  may  be  seen  struggling  through  the  grass  as  far  as  the 
limbs  extend  from  the  body  of  the  trees  under  which  they  had  been 
buried.  As  the  females  are  destitute  of  wings,  they  are  not  able  to 
wander  far  from  the  trees  upon  which  they  had  lived  in  the  cater- 
pillar state.  Canker-worms  are  therefore  naturally  confined  to  a 
very  limited  space. 

In  order  to  protect  our  trees  from  the  ravages  of  canker-worms, 
where  these  looping  spoilers  abound,  it  should  be  our  aim,  if  pos- 
sible, to  prevent  the  wingless  females  from  ascending  the  trees  to 
deposit  their  eggs.  This  can  be  done  by  the  application  of  tar 
around  the  body  of  the  tree,  either  directly  on  the  bark,  as  has 


INSECTS.  121 

been  the  moat  common  practice,  or,  wliat  is  better,  over  a  broad 
belt  of  clay-n:ortar,  or  on  strips  of  old  canvass  or  of  strong  paper, 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  wide,  fastened  around  the  trunk  with 
strings.  The  tar  must  be  applied  as  early  as  the  first  of  November, 
and  perhaps  in  October,  and  it  should  be  renewed  daily  as  long  as 
the  insects  continue  rising ;  after  which  the  bands  may  be  removed, 
and  the  tar  should  be  entirely  scraped  from  the  bark.  When  all 
this  has  been  properly  and  seasonably  done,  it  has  proved  effectual. 
The  time,  labor,  and  expense  attending  the  use  of  tar,  and  the  in- 
jury that  it  does  to  the  trees  when  allowed  to  run  and  remain  on 
the  bark,  have  caused  many  persons  to  neglect  this  method,  and 
some  to  try  various  modifications  of  it,  and  other  expedients.  Among 
the  modifications  may  be  mentioned  a  horizontal  and  close-fitting 
collar  of  boards,  fastened  around  the  trunk,  and  smeared  beneath 
with  tar ;  or  four  boards,  nailed  together,  like  a  box  without  top  or 
bottom,  around  the  base  of  the  tree,  to  receive  the  tar  on  the  out- 
side. These  can  be  used  to  protect  a  few  choice  trees  in  a  garden, 
or  around  a  house  or  a  public  square,  but  will  be  found  too  expen- 
sive to  be  applied  to  any  great  extent.  Collars  of  tin-plate,  fas- 
tened around  the  trees,  and  sloping  downwards  like  an  inverted 
tunnel,  have  been  proposed,  upon  the  supposition  that  the  moths 
would  not  be  able  to  creep  in  an  inverted  position,  beneath  the 
smooth  and  sloping  surface.  This  method  will  also  prove  too  ex- 
pensive for  general  adoption,  even  should  it  be  found  to  answer  the 
purpose.  A  belt  of  cotton-wool,  which  it  has  been  thought  would 
entangle  the  feet  of  the  insects,  and  thus  keep  them  from  ascending 
the  trees,  has  not  proved  an  effectual  bar  to  them.  Little  square 
or  circular  troughs  of  tin  or  of  lead,  filled  with  cheap  fish  oil,  and 
placed  around  the  trees,  three  feet  or  more  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  with  a  stuffing  of  cloth,  hay,  or  sea-weed  between  them  and 
the  trunk,  have  long  been  used  with  good  success ;  and  the  only 
objections  to  them  are  the  cost  of  the  troughs,  the  difficulty  of  fixing 
and  keeping  them  in  their  places,  and  the  injury  suffered  by  the 
trees  when  the  oil  is  washed  or  blown  out  and  falls  upon  the  bark. 
These  troughs  ought  not  to  be  nailed  to  the  trees,  but  should  be 
supported  by  a  few  wooden  wedges  driven  between  them  and  the 
trunks.  A  stuffing  of  cloth,  cotton,  or  tow,  should  never  be  used ; 
sea-weed  and  fine  hay,  which  will  not  absorb  the  oil,  are  much 
better.  Before  the  troughs  are  fastened  and  filled,  the  body  of  the 
tree  should  be  well  coated  with  clay-paint  or  white- wash,  to  absorb 
the  oil  that  may  fall  upon  it.  Care  should  be  taken  to  renew  the 
6 


122  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

oil  as  often  as  it  escapes  or  becomes  filled  with  the  insects.  These 
troughs  will  be  found  more  economical  and  less  troublesome  than 
the  application  of  tar,  and  may  safely  be  recommended  and  em- 
ployed, if  proper  attention  is  given  to  the  precautions  above  named. 
Some  persons  fasten  similar  troughs,  to  contain  oil,  around  the  outer 
sides  of  an  open  box  enclosing  the  base  of  the  tree,  and  a  projecting 
ledge  is  nailed  on  the  edge  of  the  box  to  shed  the  rain  ;  by  this 
contrivance,  all  danger  of  hurting  the  tree  with  the  oil  is  entirely 
avoided.  Let  a  piece  of  India  rubber  be  burnt  over  a  gallipot,  into 
which  it  will  gradually  drop  in  the  condition  of  a  viscid  juice,  which 
state,  it  appears,  it  will  always  retain.  Having  melted  the  India 
rubber,  let  a  piece  of  cord  or  worsted  be  smeared  with  it,  and  then 
tied  several  times  round  the  trunk.  The  melted  substance  is  so 
very  sticky,  fchat  the  insects  will  be  prevented,  and  generally  cap- 
tured, in  their  attempts  to  pass  over  it.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
the  melted  rubber  might  be  applied  immediately  to  the  bark  with- 
out injuring  the  trees.  A  little  conical  mound  of  sand  surrounding 
the  base  of  the  tree  is  found  to  be  impassable  to  the  moths,  so  long 
as  the  sand  remains  dry  ;  but  they  easily  pass  over  it  when  the 
sand  is  wet,  and  they  come  out  of  the  ground  in  wet,  as  often  as  in 
dry  weather. 

Some  attempts  have  been  made  to  destroy  the  canker-worms 
after  they  were  hatched  from  the  eggs,  and  were  dispersed  over  the 
leaves  of  the  trees.  It  is  said  that  some  persons  have  saved  their 
trees  from  these  insects  by  freejy  dusting  air-slacked  lime  over  them 
while  the  leaves  were  wet  with  dew.  Showering  the  trees  with 
mixtures  that  are  found  useful  to  destroy  other  insects,  has  been 
tried  by  a  few,  and,  although  attended  with  a  good  deal  of  trouble 
and  expense,  it  may  be  worth  our  while  to  apply  such  remedies 
upon  small  and  choice  trees.  ^  mixture  of  water  and  oil-soap  (an 
article  to  be  procured  from  the  manufactories  where  whale  oil  is 
purified,)  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  of  the  soap  to  seven  gal- 
lons of  water  has  been  used ;  this  liquor,  when  thrown  on  the  trees 
with  a  garden  engine,  will  destroy  the  canker-worm  and  many  other 
insects,  without  injuring  the  foliage  of  the  fruit.  Jarring  or  shaking 
the  limbs  of  the  trees  will  disturb  the  canker-worms,  and  cause 
many  of  them  to  spin  down,  when  their  threads  may  be  broken 
off  with  a  pole ;  and  if  the  troughs  around  the  trees  are  at  the  same 
time  replenished  with  oil,  or  the  tar  is  again  applied,  the  insects 
will  be  caught  in  their  attempts  to  creep  up  the  trunks.  In  the 
same  way,  also,  those  that  are  coming  down  the  trunks  to  go  into 


INSECTS.  123 

the  ground  will  be  caught  and  killed.  If  greater  pains  were  to  be 
taken  to  destroy  the  insects  in  the  caterpillar  state,  their  numbers 
would  soon  greatly  diminish. 

Even  after  they  have  left  the  trees,  have  gone  into  the  ground, 
and  have  changed  their  forms,  they  are  not  wholly  beyond  the 
reach  of  means  for  destroying  them.  In  orchards,  in  the  autumn, 
root  up  and  kill  great  numbers  of  the  chrysalids  of'  the  canker- 
worms.  Some  persons  have  recommended  digging  or  plowing 
under  the  trees,  in  the  autumn,  with  the  hope  of  crushing  some  of 
the  chrysalids  by  so  doing,  and  of  exposing  others  to  perish  with 
the  cold  of  the  following  winter.  If  hogs  are  then  allowed  to  go 
among  the  trees,  and  a  few  grains  of  corn  are  scattered  on  the 
loosened  soil,  these  animals  will  eat  many  of  the  chrysalids  as  well 
as  the  corn,  and  will  crush  others  with  their  feet. 

Apple,  elm,  and  lime-trees,  are  sometimes  injured  a  good  deal 
by  another  kind  of  span-worm,  larger  than  the  canker-worm,  and 
very  different  from  it  in  appearance.  It  is  of  a  bright  yellow  color, 
with  ten  crinkled  black  lines  along  the  top  of  the  back ;  the  head 
is  rust-colored ;  and  the  belly  is  paler  than  the  rest  of  the  body. 
When  fully  grown,  it  measures  about  one  inch  and  a  quarter  in 
length.  It  often  rests  with  the  middle  of  the  body  curved  upwa  xls 
a  little,  and  sometimes  even  without  the  support  of  its  fore-legs. 
The  leaves  of  the  lime  seem  to  be  its  natural  and  favorite  food,  for 
it  may  be  found  on  this  tree  every  year ;  but  is  seen  in  considerable 
abundance,  with  common  canker-worms,  on  other  trees.  It  i?, 
hatched  rather  later,  and  does  not  leave  the  trees  quite  so  soon  as 
the  latter.  A-bout  or  soon  after  the  middle  of  June  it  spins  down 
from  the  trees,  goes  into  the  ground,  and  changes  to  a  chrysalis  in 
a  little  cell  five  or  six  inches  below  the  surface  ;  and  from  this  it 
comes  out  in  the  moth  state  towards  the  end  of  October  or  during 
the  month  of  November.  More  rarely  its  last  transformation  is  re- 
tarded till  the  spring.  The  females  are  wingless  and  grub-like,  with 
slender  thread-shaped  antennae.  As  soon  as  they  leave  the  ground 
they  creep  up  the  trees,  and  lay  their  eggs  jn  little  clusters,  here 
and  there  on  the  branches.  * 

As  these  span-worms  appear  at  the  same  time  as  canker-worms, 
resemble  them  in  their  habits,  and  often  live  on  the  same  trees,  they 
can  be  kept  in  check  by  such  means  as  are  found  useful  when  em- 
ployed against  canker-worms. 

THE  HOP  CATERPILLAR. — The  hop-vine  is  often  infested  by  great 
numbers  of  caterpillars  called  Herminians,  of  the  grc  up  Pyralides, 


124  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

They  eat  large  holes  in  the  leaves,  and  thereby  sometimes  greatly 
injure  the  plant.  Caterpillars  of  this  kind  have  also  been  observed 
on  the  hop  in  Europe,  from  whence  ours  may  have  been  introduced ; 
but  until  specimens  from  Europe  and  this  country  are  compared 
together,  in  all  their  states,  it  will  be  well  to  consider  the  latter  as 
distinct.  Our  hop-vine  caterpillars  are  false-loopers,  bending  up  the 
back  a  little  when  they  creep,  because  the  first  pair  of  prop-legs, 
found  in  other  caterpillars,  is  wanting  in  them.  The  rings  of  their 
bodies  are  rather  prominent,  the  cross-lines  between  them  being 
deep.  They  are  of  a  green  color,  with  two  longitudinal  white  lines 
along  the  back,  a  dark  green  line  in  the  middle  between  them,  and 
an  indistinct  whitish  line  on  each  side  of  the  body.  The  head  is 
green,  and  very  regularly  spotted  with  minute  black  dots,  from  each 
of  which  arises  a  very  short  hair.  There  are  similar  dots  and  hairs 
arranged  in  two  transverse  rows  on  each  of  the  rings.  When  dis- 
turbed they  bend  their  bodies  suddenly  and  with  a  jerk,  first  on 
one  side  and  then  on  the  other,  each  time  leaping  to  a  considerable 
distance,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  catch  or  hold  them.  They  make 
no'  webs  on  the  leaves,  and  do  not  suspend  themselves  by  silken 
threads  like  the  Geometers ;  but  they  are  very  active,  creep  fast, 
and  soon  get  upon  the  leaves  again  after  leaping  off.  When  fully 
grown  they  are  about  eight-tenths  of  an  inch  long.  They  then  form 
a  thin,  imperfect,  silky  cocoon  within  a  folded  leaf,  or  in  some 
crevice  or  sheltered  spot,  and  are  changed  to  brownish  chrysalids, 
which  present  nothing  remarkable  in  their  appearance.  Three 
weeks  afterwards  the  moths  come  forth  from  these  cocoons.  There 
are  two  broods  of  these  insects  in  the  course  of  the  summer.  The 
caterpillars  of  the  first  brood  appear  in  May  and  June,  and  are 
transformed  to  moths  towards  the  end  of  June,  and  during  the  early 
part  of  July,  Those  of  the  second  brood  appear  in  July  and  Au- 
gust, and  are  changed  to  moths  in  September.  The  insects  of  the 
second  brood  are  much  the  most  numerous  usually,  and  do  much 
more  damage  to  the  hop-vine  than  the  others. 

The  means  for  destroying  the  hop-vine  caterpillars  are  showering 
or  syringing  the  plants  with  strong  soap-suds,  or  with  a  solution  of 
oil-soap  in  water,  in  the  proportion  of  two  pounds  of  the  soap  to 
fourteen  or  fifteen  gallons  of  water. 

THE  BEE-MOTH. — The  bee-moth  belongs  to  the  group  of  Cram- 
bians  of  the  Tinea3.  Doubtless  it  was  first  brought  to  this  country, 
with  the  common  hive-bee,  from  Europe,  where  it  is  very  abundant, 
and  does  nrich  mischief  in  hives.  Very  few  of  the  Tinece  exceed 


INSECTS.  125 

or  even  equal  it  in  size.  In  its  perfect  or  adult  state  it  is  a  -winged 
moth  or  miller,  measuring,  from  the  head  to  the  tip  of  the  closed 
wings,  from  five  eighths  to  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  length,  and 
its  wings  expand  from  one  inch  and  one  tenth  to  one  inch  and  four 
tenths.  The  feelers  are  two  in  number  ;  and  the  tongue  is  very 
short,  and  hardly  visible.  The  fore-wings  shut  together  flatly  on 
the  top  of  the  back,  slope  steeply  downwards  at  the  sides,  and  are 
turned  up  at  the  end,  somewhat  like  the  tail  of  a  fowl.  The  male 
is  of  a  dusty  gray  color ;  his  fore-wings  are  more  or  less  glossed  and 
streaked  with  purple-brown  on  the  outer  edge,  they  have  a  few 
dark  brown  spots  near  the  inner  margin,  and  they  are  scalloped  or 
notched  inwardly  at  the  end ;  his  hind-wings  are  light  yellowish- 
gray,  with  whitish  fringes.  The  female  is  much  larger  than  the 
male,  and  much  darker  colored ;  her  fore-wings  are  proportionally 
longer,  not  so  deeply  notched  on  the  outer  hind  margin,  and  not 
so  much  turned  up  at  the  end ;  they  are  more  tinged  with  purple- 
brown,  sprinkled  with  darker  spots ;  and  the  hind-wings  are  dirty 
or  grayish  white.  There  are  two  broods  of  these  insects  in  the 
course  of  a  year.  Some  winged  moths  of  the  first  brood  begin  to 
appear  towards  the  end  of  April,  or  early  in  May ;  those  of  the 
second  brood  are  most  abundant  in  August ;  but  between  these 
periods,  and  even  later,  others  come  to  perfection,  and  consequently 
some  of  them  may  be  found  during  the  greater  part  of  the  summer. 
By  day  they  remain  quiet  on  the  sides  or  in  the  crevices  of  the  bee- 
house  ;  but,  if  disturbed  at  this  time,  they  open  their  wings  a  little, 
and  spring  or  glide  swiftly  away,  so  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  seize 
or  to  hold  them.  In  the  evening  they  take  wing,  when  the  bees 
are  at  rest,  and  hover  around  the  hive,  till,  having  found  the  door, 
they  go  in  and  lay  their  eggs.  Those  that  are  prevented  by  the 
crowd,  or  by  any  other  cause,  from  getting  within  the  hive,  laj 
their  eggs  on  the  outside,  or  on  the  stand,  and  the  little  worm-like 
caterpillars  hatched  therefrom  easily  creep  into  the  hive  through  the 
cracks,  or  gnaw  a  passage  for  themselves  under  the  edges  of  it. 
These  caterpillars,  at  first,  are  not  thicker  than  a  thread.  They 
have  sixteen  legs.  Their  bodies  are  soft  and  tender,  and  of  a  yel- 
lowish white  color,  sprinkled  with  a  few  little  brownish  dots,  from 
each  of  which  proceeds  a  short  hair ;  their  heads  are  brown  and 
shelly,  and  there  are  two  brown  spots  on  the  top  of  the  first  ring, 
Weak  as  they  are,  and  unprovided  with  any  natural  means  of  de- 
fence, destined,  too,  to  dwell  in  the  midst  of  the  populous  hive,  sur« 
rounded  by  watchful  and  well-armed  enemies,  at  whose  expense 


126  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

they  live,  they  are  taught  how  to  shield  themselves  against  the 
vengeance  of  the  bees,  and  pass  safely  and  unseen  in  every  direc- 
tion through  the  waxen  cells,  which  they  break  down  and  clestro- . 
Beeswax  is  their  only  food,  and  they  prefer  the  old  to  the  new 
comb,  and  are  always  found  nost  numerous  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  hive,  where  the  oldest  honeycomb  is  lodged.  It  is  not  a  little 
wonderful,  that  these  insects  should  be  able  to  get  any  nourishment 
from  wax,  a  substance  which  other  animals  cannot  digest  at  all ; 
but  they  are  created  with  an  appetite  for  it,  and  with  such  extraor- 
dinary powers  of  digestion,  that  they  thrive  well  upon  this  kind  of 
food.  As  soon  as  they  are  hatched  they  begin  to  spin  ;  and  each 
one  makes  for  itself  a  tough  silken  tube,  wherein  it  can  easily  turn 
around  and  move  backwards  or  forwards  at  pleasure.  During  the 
day  they  remain  concealed  in  their  silken  tubes ;  but  at  night,  when 
the  bees  cannot  see  them,  they  come  partly  out,  and  devour  the 
wax  within  their  reach.  As  they  increase  in  size,  they  lengthen 
and  enlarge  their  dwellings,  and  cover  them  on  the  outside  with  a 
coating  of  grains  of  wax  mixed  with  their  own  castings,  which  re- 
semble gunpowder.  Protected  by  this  coating  from  the  stings  of 
the  bees,  they  work  their  way  through  the  combs,  gnaw  them  to 
pieces,  and  fill  the  hive  with  their  filthy  webs ;  till  at  last  the  dis- 
couraged bees,  whose  diligence  and  skill  are  of  no  more  use  to  them 
in  contending  with  their  unseen  foes,  than  their  superior  size  and 
powerful  weapons,  are  compelled  to  abandon  their  perishing  brood 
and  their  wasted  stores,  and  leave  the  desolated  hive  to  the  sole 
possession  of  the  miserable  spoilers.  These  caterpillars  grow  to  the 
length  of  an  inch  or  a  little  more,  and  come  to  their  full  size  in 
about  three  weeks.  They  then  spin  their  cocoons,  which  are  strong 
silken  pods,  of  an  oblong  oval  shape,  and  about  one  inch  in  length, 
and  are  often  clustered  together  in  great  numbers  in  the  top  of  the 
hive.  Some  time  afterwards,  the  insects  in  these  cocoons  change 
to  chrysalids  of  a  light  brown  color,  rough  on  the  back,  and  with 
an  elevated  dark  brown  line  upon  it  from  one  end  to  the  other. 
When  this  transformation  happens  in  the  autumn,  the  insects  re- 
main without  further  change  till  the  spring,  and  then  burst  open 
their  cocoons,  and  come  forth  with  wings.  Those  which  become 
chrysalids  in  the  early  part  of  summer  are  transformed  to  winged 
moths  fourteen  days  afterwards,  and  immediately  pair,  lay  theii 
eggs,  and  die. 

Bees  suffer  most  from  the  depredations  of  these  insects  in  hot  and 
dry  summers.     Strong  and  healthy  swarms,  provided  with  a  COD- 


INSECTS.  127 

slant  supply  of  food  near  home,  more  often  escape  than  small  and 
weak  ones.  When  the  moth-worms  have  established  themselves 
in  a  hive,  their  presence  is  made  known  to  us  by  the  little  frag- 
ments of  wax  and  the  black  grains  scattered  by  them  over  the  floor. 
Means  should  then  be  taken,  without  delay,  to  dislodge -the  depre- 
dators and  invigorate  the  swarm.  Kollar. states  that  there  is  but 
one  sure  method  of  clearing  bee-hives  of  the  moth,  and  this  is  to 
look  for  and  destroy  the  caterpillars  or  moth-worms  and  the  chrysa- 
lids ;  and  he  advises  that  the  hives  should  be  examined,  for  this 
purpose,  once  a  week,  and  that  all  the  webs  and  cocoons,  with  the 
insects  in  them,  should  be  taken  out  and  destroyed.  At  all  events, 
the  examination  ought  to  be  made  every  year,  early  in  September, 
when  the  cocoons  will  be  found  in  greater  numbers  than  at  any 
other  time,  and  should  be  carefully  removed  and  burned.  The 
winged  moths  are  very  fond  of  sweets ;  and  if  shallow  vessels,  con- 
taining a  mixture  of  honey  or  sugar,  with  vinegar  and  water,  are 
placed  near  the  bee-house  in  the  evening,  the  moths  will  get  into 
them  and  be  drowned.  In  this  way  great  numbers  may  be  caught 
every  night.  Several  kinds  of  hives  and  bee-houses  have  been  con- 
trived and  recommended,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  out  the  bee- 
moth  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  any  of  them  entirely  supersede 
the  necessity  for  the  measures  above  recommended. 

GRAIN  MOTHS. — The  various  kinds  of  destructive  moths,  found 
in  houses,  stores,  barns,  granaries,  breweries,  and  mills,  are  mostly 
very  small  insects  ;  the  largest  of  them,  when  arrived  at  maturity, 
expanding  their  wings  only  about  eight  tenths  of  an  inch.  The 
ravages  of  some  of  these  little  creatures  are  too  well  known  to  need 
a  particular  description.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  the  grain- 
moth  (T.  grundld),  with  some  others  belonging  to  a  group,  which 
may  be  called  Tineans  (TINEAD^E),  and  the  Angoumois  grain-moth 
(Anacampsis  cerealella,)  both  of  which  are  to  be  included  among  the 
Yponomeutians. 

Stored  grain  is  exposed  to  much  injury  from  the  depredations 
of  two  little  moths,  in  Europe,  and  is  attacked  in  the  same  way, 
and  apparently  by  the  same  insects,  in  this  country. 

The  European  grain-moth  (Tinea  granella),  in  its  perfected  state, 
is  a  winged  insect,  between  three  and  four  tenths  of  an  inch  long 
from  the  head  to  the  tip  of  its  wings,  and  expands  six  tenths  of  an 
inch.  It  has  a  whitish  tuft  on  its  forehead ;  its  long  and  narrow 
wings  cover  its  back  like  a  sloping  roof,  are  a  little  turned  up  be- 
hind, and  are  edged  with  a  wide  fnnge.  Its  fore-wings  are  glossy 


128  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FAEM. 

like  satin,  and  are  marbled  with  white  or  gray,  light  brown,  and 
dark  brown  or  blackish  spots,  and  there  is  always  one  dark  square 
spot  near  the  middle  of  the  outer  edge.  Its  hind-wings  are  black- 
ish. Some  of  these  winged  moths  appear  in  May,  others  in  July 
and  August,  at  which  times  they  lay  their  eggs ;  for  there  are  two 
broods  of  them  in  the  course  of  the  year.  The  young  from  the 
first  laid  eggs  come  to  their  growth  and  finish  their  transforma- 
tions in  six  weeks  or  two  months;  the  others  live  through  the 
winter,  and  turn  to  winged  moths  in  the  following  spring.  The 
young  moth-worms  do  not  burrow  into  the  grain,  as  has  been  as- 
serted by  some  writers,  who  seem  to  have  confounded  them  with 
the  Angoumois  grain-worms  ;  but,  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched, 
they  begin  to  gnaw  the  grain  and  cover  themselves  with  the  frag- 
ments, which  they  line  with  a  silken  web.  As  they  increase  in  size 
they  fasten  together  several  grains  with  their  webs,  so  as  to  make  a 
larger  cavity,  wherein  they  live.  After  a  while,  becoming  uneasy 
in  their  confined  habitations,  they  come  out,  and  wander  over  the 
grain,  spinning  their  threads  as  they  go,  till  they  have  found  a 
suitable  place  wherein  to  make  their  cocoons.  Thus,  wheat,  rye, 
barley,  and  oats,  all  of  which  they  attack,  will  be  found  full  of  lumps 
of  grains  cemented  together  by  these  grain- worms ;  and  when  they 
are  very  numerous,  the  whole  surface  of  the  grain  in  the  bin  will  be 
covered  with  a  thick  crust  of  webs  and  of  adhering  grains.  These 
destructive  grain-worms  are  really  soft  and  naked  caterpillars,  of  a 
cylindrical  shape,  tapering  a  little  at  each  end,  and  are  provided 
with  sixteen  legs,  the  first  three  pairs  of  which  are  conical  and 
jointed,  and  the  others  fleshy  and  wart-like.  When  fully  grown, 
they  measure  four  or  five  tenths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  are  of  a 
light  ochre  or  buff  color,  with  a  reddish  head.  When  about  six 
weeks  old  they  leave  the  grain,  and  get  into  cracks,  or  around  the 
sides  of  corn-bins,  and  each  one  then  makes  itself  a  little  oval  pod 
or  cocoon,  about  as  large  as  a  grain  of  wheat.  The  insects  of  the 
first  brood,  as  before  said,  come  out  of  their  cocoons,  in  the  winged 
form,  in  July  and  August,  and  lay  their  eggs  for  another  brood : 
the  others  remain  unchanged  in  their  cocoons,  through  the  winter, 
and  take  the  chrysalis  form  in  March  or  April  following.  Three 
weeks  afterwards,  the  shining  brown  chrysalis  forces  itself  part  way 
out  of  the  cocoon,  by  the  help  of  some  little  sharp  points  on  its  tail, 
and  bursts  open  at  the  other  end,  so  as  to  allow  the  moth  therein 
confined  to  come  forth. 

There  is  another  grain-moth,  which,  at  various  times,  has  been 


INSECTS.  129 

found  to  be  more  destructive  in  granaries,  in  some  provinces  of 
France,  than  the  preceding  kind.  It  is  the  Angoumois  moth  (Ana- 
campsis  ?  cerealella),  an  insect  evidently  belonging  to  the  family  of 
Yponomeutians.  The  winged  moths  of  this  group  have  only  two 
visible  feelers,  and  these  are  generally  long,  slender,  and  curved  over 
their  heads.  Their  narrow  wings  most  often  overlap  each  other, 
and  cover  their  backs  horizontally  when  shut.  The  Angoumois 
grain-moth  probably  belongs  to  the  modern  genus  Anacampsis.  In 
the  year  1768,  Colonel  Landon  Carter,  of  Sabine  Hall,  Virginia, 
communicated  to  the  American  Philosophical  Society  at  Philadel- 
phia, some  interesting  "  Observations  concerning  the  Fly- weevil  that 
destroys  wheat."  The  Angoumois  moth,  or  Anawmpsis  cerealella, 
in  its  perfected  state,  is  a  four-winged  insect,  about  three  eighths  of 
an  inch  long,  when  its  wings  are  shut.  It  has  a  pair  of  tapering 
curved  feelers,  turned  over  its  head.  Its  upper  wings  are  narrow, 
of  a  light  brown  color,  without  spots,  and  have  the  lustre  of  satin ; 
they  cover  the  body  horizontally  above,  but  droop  a  little  at  the 
sides.  The  lower  wings  and  the  rest  of  the  body  are  ash-colored. 
This  moth  lays  its  eggs,  which  vary  in  number  from  sixty  to  ninety, 
in  clusters,  on  the  ears  of  wheat,  rye,  and  barley,  most  often  while 
these  plants  are  growing  in  the  field,  and  the  ears  are  young  and 
tender ;  sometimes  also  on  stored  grain  in  the  autumn.  Hence  it 
appears  that  they  breed  twice  a  year ;  the  insects  from  the  eggs 
laid  in  the  early  part  of  summer,  coming  to  perfection  and  provi- 
ding for  another  brood  of  moth-worms  in  the  autumn.  The  little 
worm-like  caterpillars,  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched,  disperse,  and 
each  one  selects  a  single  grain,  into  which  it  burrows  immediately 
at  the  most  tender  pail,  and  remains  concealed  therein  after  the 
grain  is  harvested.  It  devours  the  mealy  substance  within  the  hull ; 
and  this  destruction  goes  on  so  secretly,  that  it  can  only  be  detected 
by  the  softness  of  the  grain  or  the  loss  of  its  weight.  When  fully 
grown  this  caterpillar  is  not  more  than  one  fifth  of  an  inch  long.  It 
is  of  a  white  color,  with  a  brownish  head ;  and  it  has  six  small 
jointed  legs,  and  ten  extremely  small  wart-like  proplegs.  Duharnel 
has  represented  it  as  having  two  little  horns  just  behind  the  head,  and 
two  short  bristles  at  the  end  of  its  tapering  body.  Having  eaten 
out  the  heart  of  the  grain,  which  is  just  enough  for  all  its  wants,  it 
spins  a  silken  web  or  curtain  to  divide  the  hollow,  lengthwise,  into 
two  unequal  parts,  the  smaller  containing  the  rejected  fragments 
of  its  food,  and  the  larger  cavity  serving  instead  of  a  cocoon,  wherein 
the  insect  undergoes  its  transformations.  Before  turning  to  a  chry- 
6* 


130  THE   PESTS  OF  THE   FAKM. 

sails  it  gnaws  a  small  hole  nearly  or  quite  through  the  hull,  and 
sometimes  also  through  the  chaffy  covering  of  the  grain,  through 
which  it  can  make  its  escape  easily  when  it  becomes  a  winged  moth. 
The  insects  of  the  first,  or  summer  brood,  come  to  maturity  in  about 
three  weeks,  remain  but  a  short  time  in  the  chrysalis  state,  and 
turn  to  winged  moths  in  the  autumn,  and  at  this  time  may  be 
found,  in  the  evening,  in  great  numbers,  laying  their  eggs  on  the 
grain  stored  in  barns  and  granaries.  The  moth-worms  of  the 
second  br<5bd  remain  in  the  grain  through  the  winter,  and  do  not 
change  to  winged  insects  till  the  following  summer,  when  they  come 
out,  fly  into  the  fields  in  the  night,  and  lay  their  eggs  on  the  young 
ears  of  the  growing  grain.  When  damaged  grain  is  sown  it  comes 
up  very  thin ;  the  infected  kernels  never  sprout,  but  the  insects 
lodged  in  them  remain  alive,  finish  their  transformations  in  the  field, 
and  in  due  time  come  out  of  the  ground  in  the  winged  form. 

It  has  been  proved  by  experience  that  the  ravages  of  the  two 
kinds  of  grain-moths,  whose  history  has  been  now  given,  can  be 
effectually  checked  by  drying  the  damaged  grain  in  .an  oven  or 
kiln ;  and  that  a  heat  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-seven  degrees,  by 
Fahrenheit's  thermometer,  continued  during  twelve  hours,  will  kill 
the  insects  in  all  their  forms.  Indeed  the  heat  may  be  reduced  to 
one  hundred  and  four  degrees,  with  the  same  effect,  but  the  grain 
must  then  be  exposed  to  it  for  the  space  of  two  days.  The  other 
means,  that  have  been  employed  for  the  preservation  of  grain  from 
these  destructive  moths,  it  is  unnecessary  to  describe ;  they  are 
probably  well  known  to  most  of  our  farmers  and  millers,  and  are 
rarely  so  effectual  as  the  process  above  mentioned. 

HESSIAN  FLY. — Under  the  name  of  DIPTERA,  signifying  two- 
winged,  are  included  all  the  insects  that  have  only  two  wings,  and 
are  provided  with  two  little  knobbed  threads  in  the  place  of  hind- 
wings,  and  a  mouth  formed  for  sucking  or  lapping.  Various  kinds 
of  gnats  and  of  .flies  are  therefore  the  insects  belonging  to  this  order. 
The  proboscis  or  sucker,  wherewith  they  take  their  food,  is  placed 
under  the  head,  and  sometimes  can  be  drawn  ap  and  concealed, 
partly  or  wholly,  within  the  cavity  of  the  mouth. 

The  young  insects,  hatched  from  the  eggs  of  gnats  and  of  flies, 
are  fleshy  larvae,  usually  of  a  whitish  color,  and  without  legs.  They 
are  commonly  called  maggots,  and  sometimes  are  mistaken  foi 
worms.  They  vary  a  good  deal  in  their  forms,  structure,  habits 
and  transformations,  so  that  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  give  an} 
general  description  of  them.  Most  insects  are  hatched  from  eggs 


INSECTS.  131 

which  are  laid  by  tte  mother  on  the  substances  that  are  to  serve 
for  the  food  of  her  young. 

The  far-famed  Hessian  fly  and  the  wheat-fly  of  Europe,  and  of 
this  country,  are  small  gnats  or  midges,  and  belong  to  the  family 
called  CECIDOMYIADJS,  or  gall-gnats.  The  insects  of  this  family  are 
very  numerous,  and  most  of  them,  in  the  maggot  state,  live  in  galls 
or  unnatural  enlargements  of  the  stems,  leaves,  and  buds  of  plants, 
caused  by  the  punctures  of  the  winged  insects  in  laying  their  eggs. 
The  Hessian  fly,  wheat-fly,  and  some  others  differ  from  the  ma- 
jority in  not  producing  such  alterations  in  plants.  The  proboscis  of 
these  insects  is  very  short,  and  does  not  contain  the  piercing  bris- 
tles found  in  the  long  proboscis  of  the  biting  gnats  and  musquitos. 
Their  antennae  are  long,  composed  of  many  little,  bead-like  joints, 
which  are  larger  in  the  males  than  in  the  other  sex ;  and  each  joint 
is  suiTOunded  with  short  hairs.  Their  eyes  are  kidney-shaped. 
Their  legs  are  rather  long  and  very  slender.  Their  wings  have 
only  two,  three,  or  four  veins  in  them,  and  are  fringed  with  little 
hairs  around  the  edges ;  when  not  in  use,  they  are  generally  carried 
flat  on  the  back.  The  hind-body  of  the  females  often  ends  with  a 
retractile,  conical  tube,  wherewith  they  deposit  their  eggs.  Their 
young  are  little,  footless  maggots,  tapering  at  each  end,  and  gene- 
rally of  a  deep  yellow  or  orange  color.  They  live  on  the  juices  of 
plants,  and  undergo  their  transformations  either  in  these  plants,  or 
in  the  ground. 

The  Hessian  fly  was  scientifically  described  by  Mr.  Say,  in  1817, 
under  the  name  of  Ceddomyia  destructor.  It  obtained  its  common 
name  from  a  supposition  that  it  was  brought  to  this  country,  in 
some  straw,  by  the  Hessian  troops  under  the  command  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Howe  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution. 

The  head  and  thorax  of  this  fly  are  black.  The  hind-body  is 
tawny,  and  covered  with  fine  grayish  hairs.  The  wings  are  black- 
ish, but  are  more  or  less  tinged  with  yellow  at  the  base,  where  also 
they  are  very  narrow ;  they  are  fringed  with  short  hairs,  and  are 
rounded  at  the  end.  The  body  measures  about  one  tenth  of  an 
inch  in  length,  and  the  wings  expand  one  quarter  of  an  inch,  or 
more.  It  is  a  true  Cetidomyia,  differing  from  JLasioptera  in  the 
shortness  of  the  first  joint  of  its  feet,  aifd  in  the  greater  length  of 
its  antennae,  the  bead-like  swellings  whereof  are  also  most  distant 
from  each  other.  Two  broods  or  generations  are  brought  to  ma- 
turity in  the  course  of  a  year,  and  the  flies  appear  in  the  spring  and 
autumn,  but  rather  earlier  in  the  Southern  and  Middle  States  than 


1S2  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

in  New  England.  The  transformations  of  some  in  each  brood  ap- 
pear to  be  retarded  beyond  the  usual  time,  as  is  found  to  be  the 
case  with  many  other  insects  ;  so  that  the  life  of  these  individuals, 
from  the  egg  to  the  winged  state,  extends  to  a  year  or  more  in 
length,  whereby  the  continuation  of  the  species  in  after  years  is 
made  more  sure.  It  has  frequently  been  asserted  that  the  flies  lay 
their  eggs  on  the  gram  in  the  ear ;  but  whether  this  be  true  or  not, 
it  is  certain  that  they  do  lay  their  eggs  on  the  young  plants,  and 
long  before  the  grain  is  ripe ;  for  many  persons  have  witnessed  and 
testified  to  this  fact.  In  the  New  England  States  and  New  York, 
winter  wheat  is  usually  sown  about  the  first  of  September.  To- 
wards the  end  of  this  month,  and  in  October,  when  the  grain  has 
sprouted,  and  begins  to  show  a  leaf  or  two,  the  flies  appear  in  the 
fields,  and,  having  paired,  begin  to  lay  their  eggs,  in  which  business 
they  are  occupied  for  several  weeks.  The  Hessian  fly  lays  her  eggs 
in  the  small  creases  of  the  young  leaves  of  the  wheat.  If  the 
weather  be  warm,  the  eggs  commonly  hatch  in  four  days  after  they 
are  laid.  The  maggots,  when  they  first  come  out  of  the  shells,  are 
of  a  pale  red  color.  Forthwith  they  crawl  down  the  leaf,  and  work 
their  way  between  it  and  the  main  stalk,  passing  downwards  till 
they  come  to  a  joint,  just  above  which  they  remain,  a  little  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  with  the  head  towards  the  root  of  the 
plant.  Having  thus  fixed  themselves  upon  the  stalk,  they  become 
stationary,  and  never  move  from  the  place  till  their  transformations 
are  completed.  They  do  not  eat  the  stalk,  neither  do  they  pene- 
trate within  it,  as  some  persons  have  supposed,  but  they  lie  length- 
wise upon  its  surface,  covered  by  the  lower  part  of  the  leaves,  and 
are  nourished  wholly  by  the  sap,  which  they  appear  to  take  by  suc- 
tion. They  soon  lose  their  reddish  color,  turn  pale,  and  will  be 
found  to  be  clouded  with  whitish  spots  ;  and  through  their  trans- 
parent skins  a  greenish  stripe  may  be  seen  in  the  middle  of  their 
bodies.  As  they  increase  in  size,  and  grow  plump  and  firm,  they 
become  imbedded  in  the  side  of  the  stem,  by  the  pressure  of  their 
bodies  upon  the  growing  plant.  One  maggot  thus  placed  seldom 
destroys  the  plant ;  but,  when  two  or  three  are  fixed  in  this  man- 
ner around  the  stem,  they  weaken  and  impoverish  the  plant,  and 
cause  it  to  fall  down,  or  to  wither  and  die.  They  usually  come  to 
their  full  size  in  five  or  six  weeks,  and  then  measure  about  three 
twentieths  of  an  inch  in  length.  Their  skin  now  gradually  hardens, 
becomes  brownish,  and  soon  changes  to  a  bright  chestnut  color. 
This  change  usually  happens  about  the  first  of  December,  when  the 


INSECTS.  183 

insect  may  be  said  to  enter  on  the  pupa  state,  for  after  this  time  it 
takes  no  more  nourishment.  The  brown  and  leathery  skin,  within 
which  the  maggot  has  changed  to  a  pupa  or  chrysalis,  is  long  egg- 
shaped,  smooth,  and  marked  with  eleven  transverse  lines,  and  mea- 
sures one  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length.  In  this  form  it  has  been 
commonly  likened  to  a  flax-seed.  The  maggots  of  the  Hessian  fly 
do  not  cast  off  their  skins  in  order  to  become  pupae,  wherein  they 
differ  from  the  larvae  of  most  other  gnats,  and  agree  with  those  of 
common  flies  ;  neither  do  they  spin  cocoons,  as  some  of  the  Ceci- 
dornyians  are  supposed  to  do.  The  pupa  gradually  cleaves  from 
the  dried  skin  of  the  larva,  and,  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  weeks, 
is  wholly  detached  from  it.  Still  inclosed  within  this  skin,  which 
thus  becomes  a  kind  of  cocoon  or  shell  for  the  pupa,  it  remains 
throughout  the  winter,  safely  lodged  in  its  bed  on  the  side  of  the 
stem,  near  the  root  of  the  plant,  and  protected  from  the  cold  by 
the  dead  leaves.  Towards  the  end  of  April  and  in  the  forepart  of 
May,  or  as  soon  as  the  weather  becomes  warm  enough  in  the  spring, 
the  insects  are  transformed  to  flies.  They  make  their  escape  from 
their  winter  quarters  by  breaking  through  one  end  of  their  shells 
and  the  remains  of  the  leaves  around  them.  Very  soon  after  the 
flies  come  forth  in  the  spring,  they  are  prepared  to  lay  their  eggs 
on  the  leaves  of  the  wheat  sown  in  the  autumn  before,  and  also  on 
the  spring-sown  wheat,  that  begins,  at  this  time,  to  appear  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  They  continue  to  come  forth  and  lay 
their  eggs  for  the  space  of  three  weeks,  after  which  they  entirely 
disappear  from  the  fields.  The  maggots  hatched  from  these  eggs, 
pass  along  the  stems  of  the  wheat,  nearly  to  the  roots,  become  sta- 
tionary, and  turn  to  pupae  in  June  and  July.  In  this  state  they 
are  found  at  the  time  of  harvest,  and,  when  the  grain  is  gathered, 
they  remain  in  the  stubble  in  the  fields.  To  this,  however,  as  Mr. 
Havens  remarks,  there  are  some  exceptions  ;  for  a  few  of  the  in- 
sects do  not  pass  so  far  down  the  side  of  the  stems  as  to  be  out  of 
the  way  of  the  sickle  when  the  grain  is  reaped,  and  consequently 
will  be  gathered  and  carried  away  with  the  straw.  Most  of  them 
are  transformed  to  flies  in  the  autumn,  but  others  remain  unchanged 
in  the  stubble  or  straw  till  the  next  spring.  In  the  winged  state, 
these  flies,  or  more  properly  gnats,  are  very  active,  and,  though 
evrj"  small  and  seemingly  feeble,  are  able  to  fly  to  a  considerable 
distance  in  search  of  fields  of  young  grain.  Their  principal  mi- 
grations take  place  in  August  and  September  in  the  Middle  States, 
where  they  undergo  th^ir  final  transformations  earlier  than  in  New 


134  THE  PESTS  OF  THE  FARM. 

England.  There,  too,  they  sometimes  take  wing  in  immense  swarms, 
and,  being  probably  aided  by  the  wind,  are  not  stopped  in  their 
course  either  by  mountains  or  rivers.  On  their  first  appearance  in 
Pennsylvania  they  were  seen  to  pass  the  Delaware  like  a  cloud. 
Being  attracted  by  light,  they  have  been  known,  during  the  wheat 
harvest,  to  enter  houses  in  the  evening  in  such  numbers  as  seriously 
to  annoy  the  inhabitants. 

The  old  discussion,  concerning  the  place  where  the  Hessian  fly 
lays  her  eggs,  has  lately  been  revived  by  Miss  Margaretta  H.  Morris, 
of  Germantown,  Pennsylvania.  Miss  Morris  believes  she  has  es- 
tablished that  the  ovum  (egg)  of  this  destructive  insect  is  deposited 
in  the  seed  of  the  wheat,  and  not  in  the  stalk  or  culm.  She  has 
watched  the  progress  of  the  animal  since  June,  1836,  and  has  sat- 
isfied herself  that  she  has  frequently  seen  the  larva  within  the  seed. 
She  has  also  detected  the  larva,  at  various  stages  of  its  progress, 
from  the  seed  to  between  the  body  of  the  stalk  and  the  sheath  of 
the  leaves.  According  to  her  observations,  the  recently  hatched 
larva  penetrates  to  the  centre  of  the  straw,  where  it  may  be  found 
of  a  pale  greenish  white  semitransparent  appearance,  in  form  some- 
what resembling  a  silk  worm.  From  one  to  six  of  these  have  been 
found  at  various  heights  from  the  seed  to  the  third  joint.  From 
the  foregoing,  we  are  led  to  infer,  that  the  egg,  being  sowed  with 
the  grain,  is  hatched  in  the  ground,  and  that  the  maggot  afterwards 
mounts  from  the  seed  through  the  middle  of  the  stem,  and,  having 
reached  a  proper  height,  escapes  from  the  hollow  of  the  straw  to 
the  outside,  where  it  takes  the  pupa  or  flax  seed  state.  The  fact 
that  the  Hessian  fly  does  ordinarily  lay  her  eggs  on  the  young 
leaves  of  wheat,  barley,  and  rye,  both  in  the  spring  and  in  the  au- 
tumn, is  too  well  authenticated  to  admit  of  any  doubt.  If,  there- 
fore, the  observations  of  Miss  Morris  are  found  to  be  equally  cor- 
rect, they  will  serve  to  show,  still  more  than  the  foregoing  history, 
how  variable  and  extraordinary  is  the  economy  of  this  insect,  and 
how  great  are  the  resources  wherewith  it  is  provided  for  the  con- 
tinuation of  its  kind. 

Various  means  have  been  recommended  for  preventing  or  less« 
ening  the  ravages  of  the  Hessian  fly ;  but  they  have  hitherto  failed, 
either  because  they  have  not  been  adapted  to  the  end  in  view,  or 
because  they  have  not  been  universally  adopted  ;  and  it  appears 
doubtful  whether  any  of  them  will  ever  entirely  exterminate  the 
insect.  Miss  Morris  advises  obtaining  "  fresh  seed  from  localities  in 
which  the  fly  has  not  made  its  appearance,"  and  that  "  by  this 


INSECTS.  186 

means  the  crop  of  the  following  year  will  be  uninjured ;  but  in  order 
to  avoid  the  introduction  of  straggling  insects  of  the  kind  from  ad- 
jacent fields,  it  is  requisite  that  a  whole  neighborhood  should  per- 
severe in  this  precaution  for  two  or  more  years  in  succession."  The 
stouter  varieties  of  wheat  ought  always  to  be  chosen,  and  the  land 
should  be  kept  in  good  condition.  If  fall  wheat  is  sown  late,  some 
of  the  eggs  will  be  avoided,  but  risk  of  winter-killing  the  plants 
will  be  incurred.  If  cattle  are  permitted  to  graze  th'e  wheat  fields 
during  the  fall,  they  will  devour  many  of  the  eggs.  A  large  num- 
ber of  the  pupae  may  be  destroyed  by  burning  the  wheat-stubble 
immediately  after  harvest,  and  then  plowing  and  harrowing  the 
land.  This  method  will  undoubtedly  do  much  good.  As  the  Hes- 
sian fly  also  lays  its  eggs,  to  some  extent,  on  rye  and  barley,  these 
crops  should  be  treated  in  a  similar  manner.  It  is  found  that  lux- 
uriant crops  more  often  escape  injury  than  those  that  are  thin  and 
light.  Steeping  the  grain  and  rolling  it  in  plaster  or  lime  tends  to 
promote  a  rapid  and  vigorous  growth,  and  will  therefore  prove 
beneficial.  Sowing  the  fields  with  wood  aShes,  in  the  proportion 
of  two  bushels  to  an  acre,  in  the  autumn,  and  again  in  the  first  and 
last  weeks  in  April,  and  as  late  in  the  month  of  May  as  the  sower 
can  pass  over  the  wheat  without  injury  to  it,  has  been  found  use- 
ful. Favorable  reports  have  been  made  upon  the  practice  of  allow- 
ing sheep  to  feed  off  the  crop  late  in  the  autumn,  and  it  has  also 
been  recommended  to  turn  them  into  the  fields  again  in  the  spring, 
in  order  to  retard  the  growth  of  the  plant  till  after  the  fly  has  dis- 
appeared. Too  much  cannot  be  said  in  favor  of  a  judicious  man- 
agement of  the  soil,  feeding  off  the  crop  by  cattle  in  the  autumn, 
and  burning  the  stubble  after  harvest ;  a  proper  and  general  atten- 
tion to  which  will  materially  lessen  the  evils  arising  from  the  dep- 
redations of  this  noxious  insect. 


48660 


